Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (2024)

Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (1) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 1 von 24Nur 1 übrig — 5 BeobachterMessing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (2) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 2 2 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (3) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 3 3 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (4) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 4 4 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (5) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 5 5 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (6) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 6 6 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (7) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 7 7 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (8) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 8 8 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (9) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 9 9 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (10) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 10 10 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (11) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 11 11 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (12) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 12 12 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (13) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 13 13 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (14) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 14 14 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (15) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 15 15 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (16) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 16 16 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (17) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 17 17 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (18) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 18 18 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (19) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 19 19 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (20) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 20 20 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (21) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 21 21 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (22) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 22 22 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (23) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 23 23 von 24Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (24) Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK 24 24 von 24

Siehe Mehr

Siehe Details auf eBayerhältlich bei

EUR 71,53 Sofort-Kaufen oder Preisvorschlag, EUR 18,59 Versand, 30-Tag Rücknahmen, eBay-Käuferschutz

Verkäufer: lasvegasormonaco ✉️ (4.265) 99.7%, Artikelstandort: Manchester, Take a look at my other items, GB, Versand nach: WORLDWIDE, Artikelnummer: 267046958258 Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK. Categories: Fictional birdsLists of fictional birdsLists of birds. The Sparrows. illustrated by Robert Gillmor. Calton, Staffs, England: T. & A. D. Poyser. ISBN 978-0-85661-048-6. "Nonvisual light reception". Sparrow Brass Ornament This is a Miniature Solid brass Sparrow The dimensions of the Small Figurine are 40 mm x 60 mm x 30 mm It is quite heavy for its size at 82 grams A wonderful collectable piece for any bird lover It would be a super addition to any collection, excellent display, practical piece or authentic period prop. This once belonged to my Grand Mother and she kept in a display cabinet for many years, but when she died it was placed in a box for storage. I Decided to have a clear out and I hope it will find a good home I have been told it is probably Victorian In Very good condition for its age over 100 years old It is in Good Condition considering its age Comes from a pet and smoke free home Sorry about the poor quality photos. They don't do the piece justice which looks a lot better in real life Would make an Excellent Present or Collectable Keepsake souvenir Click Here to Check out my Other Antique Items & Coins Bid with Confidence - Check My 100% Positive Feedback from over 2000 Satisfied Customers I have over 10 years of Ebay Selling Experience - So Why Not Treat Yourself? I have got married recently and need to raise funds to meet the costs also we are planning to move into a house together I always combined postage on multiple items Instant Feedback Automatically Left Immediately after Receiving Payment All Items Sent out within 24 hours of Receiving Payment. Overseas Bidders Please Note Surface Mail Delivery Times > Western Europe takes up to 2 weeks, Eastern Europe up to 5 weeks, North America up to 6 weeks, South America, Africa and Asia up to 8 weeks and Australasia up to 12 weeks Thanks for Looking and Best of Luck with the Bidding!! Also if bidding from overseas and you want your item tracked please select the International Signed for Postage Option For that Interesting Conversational Piece, A Birthday Present, Christmas Gift, A Comical Item to Cheer Someone Up or That Unique Perfect Gift for the Person Who has Everything....You Know Where to Look for a Bargain! XXXX - DO NOT CLICK HERE - XXXX Click Here to Add me to Your List of Favourite Sellers If You Have any Questions Please Message me through ebay and I Will Reply ASAP "A Thing of Beauty is a Joy for ever" So go ahead and treat yourself! With my free returns there is no risk! Thanks for Looking and Hope to deal soon :) I have sold items to coutries such as Afghanistan * Albania * Algeria * American Samoa (US) * Andorra * Angola * Anguilla (GB) * Antigua and Barbuda * Argentina * Armenia * Aruba (NL) * Australia * Austria * Azerbaijan * Bahamas * Bahrain * Bangladesh * Barbados * Belarus * Belgium * Belize * Benin * Bermuda (GB) * Bhutan * Bolivia * Bonaire (NL) * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Botswana * Bouvet Island (NO) * Brazil * British Indian Ocean Territory (GB) * British Virgin Islands (GB) * Brunei * Bulgaria * Burkina Faso * Burundi * Cambodia * Cameroon * Canada * Cape Verde * Cayman Islands (GB) * Central African Republic * Chad * Chile * China * Christmas Island (AU) * Cocos Islands (AU) * Colombia * Comoros * Congo * Democratic Republic of the Congo * Cook Islands (NZ) * Coral Sea Islands Territory (AU) * Costa Rica * Croatia * Cuba * Curaçao (NL) * Cyprus * Czech Republic * Denmark * Djibouti * Dominica * Dominican Republic * East Timor * Ecuador * Egypt * El Salvador * Equatorial Guinea * Eritrea * Estonia * Ethiopia * Falkland Islands (GB) * Faroe Islands (DK) * Fiji Islands * Finland * France * French Guiana (FR) * French Polynesia (FR) * French Southern Lands (FR) * Gabon * Gambia * Georgia * Germany * Ghana * Gibraltar (GB) * Greece * Greenland (DK) * Grenada * Guadeloupe (FR) * Guam (US) * Guatemala * Guernsey (GB) * Guinea * Guinea-Bissau * Guyana * Haiti * Heard and McDonald Islands (AU) * Honduras * Hong Kong (CN) * Hungary * Iceland * India * Indonesia * Iran * Iraq * Ireland * Isle of Man (GB) * Israel * Italy * Ivory Coast * Jamaica * Jan Mayen (NO) * Japan * Jersey (GB) * Jordan * Kazakhstan * Kenya * Kiribati * Kosovo * Kuwait * Kyrgyzstan * Laos * Latvia * Lebanon * Lesotho * Liberia * Libya * Liechtenstein * Lithuania * Luxembourg * Macau (CN) * Macedonia * Madagascar * Malawi * Malaysia * Maldives * Mali * Malta * Marshall Islands * Martinique (FR) * Mauritania * Mauritius * Mayotte (FR) * Mexico * Micronesia * Moldova * Monaco * Mongolia * Montenegro * Montserrat (GB) * Morocco * Mozambique * Myanmar * Namibia * Nauru * Navassa (US) * Nepal * Netherlands * New Caledonia (FR) * New Zealand * Nicaragua * Niger * Nigeria * Niue (NZ) * Norfolk Island (AU) * North Korea * Northern Cyprus * Northern Mariana Islands (US) * Norway * Oman * Pakistan * Palau * Palestinian Authority * Panama * Papua New Guinea * Paraguay * Peru * Philippines * Pitcairn Island (GB) * Poland * Portugal * Puerto Rico (US) * Qatar * Reunion (FR) * Romania * Russia * Rwanda * Saba (NL) * Saint Barthelemy (FR) * Saint Helena (GB) * Saint Kitts and Nevis * Saint Lucia * Saint Martin (FR) * Saint Pierre and Miquelon (FR) * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines * Samoa * San Marino * Sao Tome and Principe * Saudi Arabia * Senegal * Serbia * Seychelles * Sierra Leone * Singapore * Sint Eustatius (NL) * Sint Maarten (NL) * Slovakia * Slovenia * Solomon Islands * Somalia * South Africa * South Georgia (GB) * South Korea * South Sudan * Spain * Sri Lanka * Sudan * Suriname * Svalbard (NO) * Swaziland * Sweden * Switzerland * Syria * Taiwan * Tajikistan * Tanzania * Thailand * Togo * Tokelau (NZ) * Tonga * Trinidad and Tobago * Tunisia * Turkey * Turkmenistan * Turks and Caicos Islands (GB) * Tuvalu * U.S. Minor Pacific Islands (US) * U.S. Virgin Islands (US) * Uganda * Ukraine * United Arab Emirates * United Kingdom * United States * Uruguay * Uzbekistan * Vanuatu * Vatican City * Venezuela * Vietnam * Wallis and Futuna (FR) * Yemen * Zambia * Zimbabwe and major cities such as Tokyo, Yokohama, New York City, Sao Paulo, Seoul, Mexico City, Osaka, Kobe, Kyoto, Manila, Mumbai, Delhi, Jakarta, Lagos, Kolkata, Cairo, Los Angeles, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Moscow, Shanghai, Karachi, Paris, Istanbul, Nagoya, Beijing, Chicago, London, Shenzhen, Essen, Düsseldorf, Tehran, Bogota, Lima, Bangkok, Johannesburg, East Rand, Chennai, Taipei, Baghdad, Santiago, Bangalore, Hyderabad, St Petersburg, Philadelphia, Lahore, Kinshasa, Miami, Ho Chi Minh City, Madrid, Tianjin, Kuala Lumpur, Toronto, Milan, Shenyang, Dallas, Fort Worth, Boston, Belo Horizonte, Khartoum, Riyadh, Singapore, Washington, Detroit, Barcelona,, Houston, Athens, Berlin, Sydney, Atlanta, Guadalajara, San Francisco, Oakland, Montreal, Monterey, Melbourne, Ankara, Recife, Phoenix/Mesa, Durban, Porto Alegre, Dalian, Jeddah, Seattle, Cape Town, San Diego, Fortaleza, Curitiba, Rome, Naples, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Tel Aviv, Birmingham, Frankfurt, Lisbon, Manchester, San Juan, Katowice, Tashkent, Fukuoka, Baku, Sumqayit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Sapporo, Tampa, St. Petersburg, Taichung, Warsaw, Denver, Cologne, Bonn, Hamburg, Dubai, Pretoria, Vancouver, Beirut, Budapest, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Campinas, Harare, Brasilia, Kuwait, Munich, Portland, Brussels, Vienna, San Jose, Damman , Copenhagen, Brisbane, Riverside, San Bernardino, Cincinnati and Accra House sparrow Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools This is a good article. Click here for more information. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia House sparrow Male Female Conservation status Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1] Scientific classificationEdit this classification Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Passeriformes Family: Passeridae Genus: Passer Species: P. domesticus Binomial name Passer domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758) Range of P. domesticus Resident Non-breeding Extant and introduced (resident) Possibly extant and introduced (resident) Possibly extinct and introduced Synonyms[2] The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a bird of the sparrow family Passeridae, found in most parts of the world. It is a small bird that has a typical length of 16 cm (6.3 in) and a mass of 24–39.5 g (0.85–1.39 oz). Females and young birds are coloured pale brown and grey, and males have brighter black, white, and brown markings. One of about 25 species in the genus Passer, the house sparrow is native to most of Europe, the Mediterranean Basin, and a large part of Asia. Its intentional or accidental introductions to many regions, including parts of Australasia, Africa, and the Americas, make it the most widely distributed wild bird. The house sparrow is strongly associated with human habitation, and can live in urban or rural settings. Though found in widely varied habitats and climates, it typically avoids extensive woodlands, grasslands, polar regions, and hot, dry deserts far away from human development. For sustenance, the house sparrow routinely feeds at home and public bird feeding stations, but naturally feeds on the seeds of grains, flowering plants and weeds. However, it is an opportunistic, omnivorous eater, and commonly catches insects, their larvae, caterpillars, invertebrates and many other natural foods. Because of its numbers, ubiquity, and association with human settlements, the house sparrow is culturally prominent. It is extensively, and usually unsuccessfully, persecuted as an agricultural pest. It has also often been kept as a pet, as well as being a food item and a symbol of lust, sexual potency, commonness, and vulgarity. Though it is widespread and abundant, its numbers have declined in some areas. The animal's conservation status is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List. Duration: 15 seconds.0:15 An audio recording of a house sparrow Description Measurements and shape The house sparrow is typically about 16 cm (6.3 in) long, ranging from 14 to 18 cm (5.5 to 7.1 in).[3] The house sparrow is a compact bird with a full chest and a large, rounded head. Its bill is stout and conical with a culmen length of 1.1–1.5 cm (0.43–0.59 in), strongly built as an adaptation for eating seeds. Its tail is short, at 5.2–6.5 cm (2.0–2.6 in) long. The wing chord is 6.7–8.9 cm (2.6–3.5 in), and the tarsus is 1.6–2.5 cm (0.63–0.98 in).[4][5] Wingspan ranges from 19–25 centimetres (7.5–9.8 in).[4] In mass, the house sparrow ranges from 24 to 39.5 g (0.85 to 1.39 oz). Females usually are slightly smaller than males. The median mass on the European continent for both sexes is about 30 g (1.1 oz), and in more southerly subspecies is around 26 g (0.92 oz). Younger birds are smaller, males are larger during the winter, and females are larger during the breeding season. Birds at higher latitudes, colder climates, and sometimes higher altitudes are larger (under Bergmann's rule), both between and within subspecies.[6][7][8][9] Plumage The plumage of the house sparrow is mostly different shades of grey and brown. The sexes exhibit strong dimorphism: the female is mostly buffish above and below, while the male has boldly coloured head markings, a reddish back, and grey underparts.[8] The male has a dark grey crown from the top of its bill to its back, and chestnut brown flanking its crown on the sides of its head. It has black around its bill, on its throat, and on the spaces between its bill and eyes (lores). It has a small white stripe between the lores and crown and small white spots immediately behind the eyes (postoculars), with black patches below and above them. The underparts are pale grey or white, as are the cheeks, ear coverts, and stripes at the base of the head. The upper back and mantle are a warm brown, with broad black streaks, while the lower back, rump and upper tail coverts are greyish brown.[10] The male is duller in fresh nonbreeding plumage, with whitish tips on many feathers. Wear and preening expose many of the bright brown and black markings, including most of the black throat and chest patch, called the "bib" or "badge".[10][11] The badge is variable in width and general size, and may signal social status or fitness. This hypothesis has led to a "veritable 'cottage industry'" of studies, which have only conclusively shown that patches increase in size with age.[12] The male's bill is dark grey, but black in the breeding season.[3] Heads of a male (left) and an immature or female (right) The female has no black markings or grey crown. Its upperparts and head are brown with darker streaks around the mantle and a distinct pale supercilium. Its underparts are pale grey-brown. The female's bill is brownish-grey and becomes darker in breeding plumage approaching the black of the male's bill.[3][10] Juveniles are similar to the adult female, but deeper brown below and paler above, with paler and less defined supercilia. Juveniles have broader buff feather edges, and tend to have looser, scruffier plumage, like moulting adults. Juvenile males tend to have darker throats and white postoculars like adult males, while juvenile females tend to have white throats. However, juveniles cannot be reliably sexed by plumage: some juvenile males lack any markings of the adult male, and some juvenile females have male features. The bills of young birds are light yellow to straw, paler than the female's bill. Immature males have paler versions of the adult male's markings, which can be very indistinct in fresh plumage. By their first breeding season, young birds generally are indistinguishable from other adults, though they may still be paler during their first year.[3][10] Voice Most house sparrow vocalisations are variations on its short and frequent chirping call. Transcribed as chirrup, tschilp, or philip, this note is made as a contact call by flocking or resting birds; or by males to proclaim nest ownership and invite pairing. In the breeding season, the male gives this call repetitively, with emphasis and speed, but not much rhythm, forming what is described either as a song or an "ecstatic call" similar to a song.[13][14] Young birds also give a true song, especially in captivity, a warbling similar to that of the European greenfinch.[15] Aggressive males give a trilled version of their call, transcribed as "chur-chur-r-r-it-it-it-it". This call is also used by females in the breeding season, to establish dominance over males while displacing them to feed young or incubate eggs.[16] House sparrows give a nasal alarm call, the basic sound of which is transcribed as quer, and a shrill chree call in great distress.[17] Another vocalisation is the "appeasement call", a soft quee given to inhibit aggression, usually given between birds of a mated pair.[16] These vocalisations are not unique to the house sparrow, but are shared, with small variations, by all sparrows.[18] Variation An immature of the Indian subspecies (P. d. indicus) in Rajasthan, India Some variation is seen in the 12 subspecies of house sparrows, which are divided into two groups, the Oriental P. d. indicus group, and the Palaearctic P. d. domesticus group. Birds of the P. d. domesticus group have grey cheeks, while P. d. indicus group birds have white cheeks, as well as bright colouration on the crown, a smaller bill, and a longer black bib.[19] The subspecies P. d. tingitanus differs little from the nominate subspecies, except in the worn breeding plumage of the male, in which the head is speckled with black and underparts are paler.[20] P. d. balearoibericus is slightly paler than the nominate, but darker than P. d. bibilicus.[21] P. d. bibilicus is paler than most subspecies, but has the grey cheeks of P. d. domesticus group birds. The similar P. d. persicus is paler and smaller, and P. d. niloticus is nearly identical but smaller. Of the less widespread P. d. indicus group subspecies, P. d. hyrcanus is larger than P. d. indicus, P. d. hufufae is paler, P. d. bactrianus is larger and paler, and P. d. parkini is larger and darker with more black on the breast than any other subspecies.[20][22][23] Identification The house sparrow can be confused with a number of other seed-eating birds, especially its relatives in the genus Passer. Many of these relatives are smaller, with an appearance that is neater or "cuter", as with the Dead Sea sparrow.[24] The light brown-coloured female can often not be distinguished from other females, and is nearly identical to those of the Spanish and Italian sparrows.[10] The Eurasian tree sparrow is smaller and slenderer with a chestnut crown and a black patch on each cheek.[25] The male Spanish sparrow and Italian sparrow are distinguished by their chestnut crowns. The Sind sparrow is very similar but smaller, with less black on the male's throat and a distinct pale supercilium on the female.[10] Taxonomy and systematics Names The house sparrow was among the first animals to be given a scientific name in the modern system of biological classification, since it was described by Carl Linnaeus, in the 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. It was described from a type specimen collected in Sweden, with the name Fringilla domestica.[26][27] Later, the genus name Fringilla came to be used only for the common chaffinch and its relatives, and the house sparrow has usually been placed in the genus Passer created by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760.[28][29] The bird's scientific name and its usual English name have the same meaning. The Latin word passer, like the English word "sparrow", is a term for small active birds, coming from a root word referring to speed.[30][31] The Latin word domesticus means "belonging to the house", like the common name a reference to its association with humans.[32] The house sparrow is also called by a number of alternative English names, including English sparrow, chiefly in North America;[33][34] and Indian sparrow or Indian house sparrow, for the birds of the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia.[35] Dialectal names include sparr, sparrer, spadger, spadgick, and philip, mainly in southern England; spug and spuggy, mainly in northern England; spur and sprig, mainly in Scotland;[36][37] and spatzie or spotsie, from the German Spatz, in North America.[38] Taxonomy A pair of Italian sparrows, in Rome The genus Passer contains about 25 species, depending on the authority, 26 according to the Handbook of the Birds of the World.[39] Most Passer species are dull-coloured birds with short, square tails and stubby, conical beaks, between 11 and 18 cm (4.3 and 7.1 in) long.[8][40] Mitochondrial DNA studies suggest that speciation in the genus occurred during the Pleistocene and earlier, while other evidence suggests speciation occurred 25,000 to 15,000 years ago.[41][42] Within Passer, the house sparrow is part of the "Palaearctic black-bibbed sparrows" group and a close relative of the Mediterranean "willow sparrows".[39][43] The taxonomy of the house sparrow and its Mediterranean relatives is complicated. The common type of "willow sparrow" is the Spanish sparrow, which resembles the house sparrow in many respects.[44] It frequently prefers wetter habitats than the house sparrow, and it is often colonial and nomadic.[45] In most of the Mediterranean, one or both species occur, with some degree of hybridisation.[46] In North Africa, the two species hybridise extensively, forming highly variable mixed populations with a full range of characters from pure house sparrows to pure Spanish sparrows.[47][48][49] In most of Italy, the breeding species is the Italian sparrow, which has an appearance intermediate between those of the house and Spanish sparrows. Its specific status and origin are the subject of much debate, but it may be a case of long-ago hybrid speciation.[48][50] In the Alps, the Italian sparrow intergrades over a narrow roughly 20 km (12 mi) strip with the house sparrow, and some house sparrows migrate into the Italian sparrow's range in winter.[51] On the Mediterranean islands of Malta, Gozo, Crete, Rhodes, and Karpathos, other apparently intermediate birds are of unknown status.[48][52][53] Subspecies A male of the subspecies P. d. balearoibericus in Istanbul A male of the migratory subspecies P. d. bactrianus (with a Eurasian tree sparrow and young house or Spanish sparrows) in Baikonur, Kazakhstan A large number of subspecies have been named, of which 12 were recognised in the Handbook of the Birds of the World. These subspecies are divided into two groups, the Palaearctic P. d. domesticus group, and the Oriental P. d. indicus group.[39] Several Middle Eastern subspecies, including P. d. biblicus, are sometimes considered a third, intermediate group. The subspecies P. d. indicus was described as a species, and was considered to be distinct by many ornithologists during the 19th century.[19] Migratory birds of the subspecies P. d. bactrianus in the P. d. indicus group were recorded overlapping with P. d. domesticus birds without hybridising in the 1970s, so the Soviet scientists Edward I. Gavrilov and M. N. Korelov proposed the separation of the P. d. indicus group as a separate species.[28][54] However, P. d. indicus group and P. d. domesticus group birds intergrade in a large part of Iran, so this split is rarely recognised.[39] In North America, house sparrow populations are more differentiated than those in Europe.[7] This variation follows predictable patterns, with birds at higher latitudes being larger and darker and those in arid areas being smaller and paler.[8][55][56] However, how much this is caused by evolution or by environment is not clear.[57][58][59][60] Similar observations have been made in New Zealand[61] and in South Africa.[62] The introduced house sparrow populations may be distinct enough to merit subspecies status, especially in North America and southern Africa,[39] and American ornithologist Harry Church Oberholser even gave the subspecies name P. d. plecticus to the paler birds of western North America.[55] P. d. domesticus group P. d. domesticus Linnaeus, 1758, the nominate subspecies, is found in most of Europe, across northern Asia to Sakhalin and Kamchatka. It is the most widely introduced subspecies.[26] P. d. balearoibericus von Jordans, 1923, described from Majorca, is found in the Balearic Islands, southern France, the Balkans, and Anatolia.[39] P. d. tingitanus (Loche, 1867), described from Algeria, is found in the Maghreb from Ajdabiya in Libya to Béni Abbès in Algeria, and to Morocco's Atlantic coast. It hybridises extensively with the Spanish sparrow, especially in the eastern part of its range.[63] P. d. niloticus Nicoll and Bonhote, 1909, described from Faiyum, Egypt, is found along the Nile north of Wadi Halfa, Sudan. It intergrades with bibilicus in the Sinai, and with rufidorsalis in a narrow zone around Wadi Halfa. It has been recorded in Somaliland.[63][64] P. d. persicus Zarudny and Kudashev, 1916, described from the Karun River in Khuzestan, Iran, is found in the western and central Iran south of the Alborz mountains, intergrading with indicus in eastern Iran, and Afghanistan.[39][63][65] P. d. biblicus Hartert, 1910, described from Palestine, is found in the Middle East from Cyprus and southeastern Turkey to the Sinai in the west and from Azerbaijan to Kuwait in the east.[39][63] P. d. indicus group P. d. hyrcanus Zarudny and Kudashev, 1916, described from Gorgan, Iran, is found along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea from Gorgan to southeastern Azerbaijan. It intergrades with P. d. persicus in the Alborz mountains, and with P. d. bibilicus to the west. It is the subspecies with the smallest range.[39][63] P. d. bactrianus Zarudny and Kudashev, 1916, described from Tashkent, is found in southern Kazakhstan to the Tian Shan and northern Iran and Afghanistan. It intergrades with persicus in Baluchistan and with indicus across central Afghanistan. Unlike most other house sparrow subspecies, it is almost entirely migratory, wintering in the plains of the northern Indian subcontinent. It is found in open country rather than in settlements, which are occupied by the Eurasian tree sparrow in its range.[39][63] There is an exceptional record from Sudan.[64] P. d. parkini Whistler, 1920, described from Srinagar, Kashmir, is found in the western Himalayas from the Pamir Mountains to southeastern Nepal. It is migratory, like P. d. bactrianus.[19][63] P. d. indicus Jardine and Selby, 1831, described from Bangalore, is found in the Indian subcontinent south of the Himalayas, in Sri Lanka, western Southeast Asia, eastern Iran, southwestern Arabia and southern Israel.[19][39][63] P. d. hufufae Ticehurst and Cheeseman, 1924, described from Hofuf in Saudi Arabia, is found in northeastern Arabia.[63][66] P. d. rufidorsalis C. L. Brehm, 1855, described from Khartoum, Sudan, is found in the Nile valley from Wadi Halfa south to Renk in northern South Sudan,[63][64] and in eastern Sudan, northern Ethiopia to the Red Sea coast in Eritrea.[39] It has also been introduced to Mohéli in the Comoros.[67] Distribution and habitat By a nest in a saguaro cactus in Arizona House sparrows perching on a roof, during winter in the Southern Alps of New Zealand The house sparrow originated in the Middle East and spread, along with agriculture, to most of Eurasia and parts of North Africa.[68] Since the mid-19th century, it has reached most of the world, chiefly due to deliberate introductions, but also through natural and shipborne dispersal.[69] Its introduced range encompasses most of North America (including Bermuda),[70] Central America, southern South America, southern Africa, part of West Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and islands throughout the world.[71] It has greatly extended its range in northern Eurasia since the 1850s,[72] and continues to do so, as was shown by its colonisation around 1990 of Iceland and Rishiri Island, Japan.[73] The extent of its range makes it the most widely distributed wild bird on the planet.[71] Introduction The house sparrow has become highly successful in most parts of the world where it has been introduced. This is mostly due to its early adaptation to living with humans, and its adaptability to a wide range of conditions.[74][75] Other factors may include its robust immune response, compared to the Eurasian tree sparrow.[76] Where introduced, it can extend its range quickly, sometimes at a rate over 230 km (140 mi) per year.[77] In many parts of the world, it has been characterised as a pest, and poses a threat to native birds.[78][79] A few introductions have died out or been of limited success, such as those to Greenland and Cape Verde.[80] The first of many successful introductions to North America occurred when birds from England were released in New York City, in 1852,[81][82] intended to control the ravages of the linden moth.[83] In North America, the house sparrow now occurs from the Northwest Territories of Canada to southern Panama,[4] and it is one of the most abundant birds of the continent.[78] The house sparrow was first introduced to Australia in 1863 at Melbourne and is common throughout the eastern part of the continent as far north as Cape York,[80] but has been prevented from establishing itself in Western Australia,[84] where every house sparrow found in the state is killed.[85] House sparrows were introduced in New Zealand in 1859, and from there reached many of the Pacific islands, including Hawaii.[86] In southern Africa, birds of both the European subspecies (P. d. domesticus) and the Indian subspecies (P. d. indicus) were introduced around 1900. Birds of P. d. domesticus ancestry are confined to a few towns, while P. d. indicus birds have spread rapidly, reaching Tanzania in the 1980s. Despite this rapid spread, native relatives such as the Cape sparrow also occur and thrive in urban habitats.[80][87] In South America, it was first introduced near Buenos Aires around 1870, and quickly became common in most of the southern part of the continent. It now occurs almost continuously from Tierra del Fuego to the fringes of the Amazon basin, with isolated populations as far north as coastal Venezuela.[80][88][89] Habitat The house sparrow is closely associated with human habitation and cultivation.[90] It is not an obligate commensal of humans as some have suggested: birds of the migratory Central Asian subspecies usually breed away from humans in open country,[91] and birds elsewhere are occasionally found away from humans.[90][92][93] The only terrestrial habitats that the house sparrow does not inhabit are dense forest and tundra. Well adapted to living around humans, it frequently lives and even breeds indoors, especially in factories, warehouses, and zoos.[90] It has been recorded breeding in an English coal mine 640 m (2,100 ft) below ground,[94] and feeding on the Empire State Building's observation deck at night.[95] It reaches its greatest densities in urban centres, but its reproductive success is greater in suburbs, where insects are more abundant.[90][96] On a larger scale, it is most abundant in wheat-growing areas such as the Midwestern United States.[97] It tolerates a variety of climates, but prefers drier conditions, especially in moist tropical climates.[80][90] It has several adaptations to dry areas, including a high salt tolerance[98] and an ability to survive without water by ingesting berries.[99] In most of eastern Asia, the house sparrow is entirely absent, replaced by the Eurasian tree sparrow.[100] Where these two species overlap, the house sparrow is usually more common than the Eurasian tree sparrow, but one species may replace the other in a manner that ornithologist Maud Doria Haviland described as "random, or even capricious".[101] In most of its range, the house sparrow is extremely common, despite some declines,[1] but in marginal habitats such as rainforest or mountain ranges, its distribution can be spotty.[90] Behaviour The house sparrow often bathes in water (at left) or in dust (at right). Social behaviour The house sparrow is a very social bird. It is gregarious during all seasons when feeding, often forming flocks with other species of birds.[102] It roosts communally while breeding nests are usually grouped together in clumps. House sparrows also engage in social activities such as dust or water bathing and "social singing", in which birds call together in bushes.[103][104] The house sparrow feeds mostly on the ground, but it flocks in trees and bushes.[103] At feeding stations and nests, female house sparrows are dominant despite their smaller size, and they can fight over males in the breeding season.[105][106] Sleep and roosting House sparrows sleep with the bill tucked underneath the scapular feathers.[107] Outside of the reproductive season, they often roost communally in trees or shrubs. Much communal chirping occurs before and after the birds settle in the roost in the evening, as well as before the birds leave the roost in the morning.[103] Some congregating sites separate from the roost may be visited by the birds prior to settling in for the night.[108] Body maintenance Dust or water bathing is common and often occurs in groups. Anting is rare.[109] Head scratching is done with the leg over the drooped wing.[108] Feeding A female house sparrow feeding on rice grains As an adult, the house sparrow mostly feeds on the seeds of grains and weeds, but it is opportunistic and adaptable, and eats whatever foods are available.[110] In towns and cities, it often scavenges for food in garbage containers and congregates in the outdoors of restaurants and other eating establishments to feed on leftover food and crumbs. It can perform complex tasks to obtain food, such as opening automatic doors to enter supermarkets,[111] clinging to hotel walls to watch vacationers on their balconies,[112] and nectar robbing kowhai flowers.[113] In common with many other birds, the house sparrow requires grit to digest the harder items in its diet. Grit can be either stone, often grains of masonry, or the shells of eggs or snails; oblong and rough grains are preferred.[114][115] Several studies of the house sparrow in temperate agricultural areas have found the proportion of seeds in its diet to be about 90%.[110][116][117] It will eat almost any seeds, but where it has a choice, it prefers corn: oats, wheat or maize.[118] Rural birds tend to eat more waste seed from animal dung and seed from fields while urban birds tend to eat more commercial bird seed and weed seed.[119] In urban areas, the house sparrow also feeds largely on food provided directly or indirectly by humans, such as bread, though it prefers raw seeds.[117][120] The house sparrow also eats some plant matter besides seeds, including buds, berries, and fruits such as grapes and cherries.[99][117] In temperate areas, the house sparrow has an unusual habit of tearing flowers, especially yellow ones, in the spring.[121] Animals form another important part of the house sparrow's diet, chiefly insects, of which beetles, caterpillars, dipteran flies, and aphids are especially important. Various noninsect arthropods are eaten, as are molluscs and crustaceans where available, earthworms, and even vertebrates such as lizards and frogs.[110] Young house sparrows are fed mostly on insects until about 15 days after hatching.[122] They are also given small quantities of seeds, spiders, and grit. In most places, grasshoppers and crickets are the most abundant foods of nestlings.[123] True bugs, ants, sawflies, and beetles are also important, but house sparrows take advantage of whatever foods are abundant to feed their young.[123][124][125] House sparrows have been observed stealing prey from other birds, including American robins.[4] The gut microbiota of house sparrows differs between chicks and adults, with Pseudomonadota (formerly Proteobacteria) decreasing in chicks when they get to around 9 days old, whilst the relative abundance of Bacillota increase.[126] Locomotion The house sparrow's flight is direct (not undulating) and flapping, averaging 45.5 km/h (28.3 mph) and about 15 wingbeats per second.[108][127] On the ground, the house sparrow typically hops rather than walks. It can swim when pressed to do so by pursuit from predators. Captive birds have been recorded diving and swimming short distances under water.[108] Dispersal and migration Most house sparrows do not move more than a few kilometres during their lifetimes. However, limited migration occurs in all regions. Some young birds disperse long distances, especially on coasts, and mountain birds move to lower elevations in winter.[103][128][129] Two subspecies, P. d. bactrianus and P. d. parkini, are predominantly migratory. Unlike the birds in sedentary populations that migrate, birds of migratory subspecies prepare for migration by putting on weight.[103] Breeding A pair of the Indian subspecies (P. d. indicus) mating in Kolkata House sparrows can breed in the breeding season immediately following their hatching, and sometimes attempt to do so. Some birds breeding for the first time in tropical areas are only a few months old and still have juvenile plumage.[130] Birds breeding for the first time are rarely successful in raising young, and reproductive success increases with age, as older birds breed earlier in the breeding season, and fledge more young.[131] As the breeding season approaches, hormone releases trigger enormous increases in the size of the sexual organs and changes in day length lead males to start calling by nesting sites.[132][133] The timing of mating and egg-laying varies geographically, and between specific locations and years because a sufficient supply of insects is needed for egg formation and feeding nestlings.[134] Males take up nesting sites before the breeding season, by frequently calling beside them. Unmated males start nest construction and call particularly frequently to attract females. When a female approaches a male during this period, the male displays by moving up and down while drooping and shivering his wings, pushing up his head, raising and spreading his tail, and showing his bib.[134] Males may try to mate with females while calling or displaying. In response, a female will adopt a threatening posture and attack a male before flying away, pursued by the male. The male displays in front of her, attracting other males, which also pursue and display to the female. This group display usually does not immediately result in copulations.[134] Other males usually do not copulate with the female.[135][136] Copulation is typically initiated by the female giving a soft dee-dee-dee call to the male. Birds of a pair copulate frequently until the female is laying eggs, and the male mounts the female repeatedly each time a pair mates.[134] The house sparrow is monogamous, and typically mates for life, but birds from pairs often engage in extra-pair copulations, so about 15% of house sparrow fledglings are unrelated to their mother's mate.[137] Males guard their mates carefully to avoid being cuckolded, and most extra-pair copulation occurs away from nest sites.[135][138] Males may sometimes have multiple mates, and bigamy is mostly limited by aggression between females.[139] Many birds do not find a nest and a mate, and instead may serve as helpers around the nest for mated pairs, a role which increases the chances of being chosen to replace a lost mate. Lost mates of both sexes can be replaced quickly during the breeding season.[135][140] The formation of a pair and the bond between the two birds is tied to the holding of a nest site, though paired house sparrows can recognise each other away from the nest.[134] Nesting Female bringing food for young in a nest made in a tree hole in California Sparrow in a ventilator Sparrow in a ventilator Nest sites are varied, though cavities are preferred. Nests are most frequently built in the eaves and other crevices of houses. Holes in cliffs and banks, and tree hollows, are also used.[141][142] A sparrow sometimes excavates its own nests in sandy banks or rotten branches, but more frequently uses the nests of other birds such as those of swallows in banks and cliffs, and old tree cavity nests. It usually uses deserted nests, though sometimes it usurps active ones by driving away or killing the occupants.[141][143] Tree hollows are more commonly used in North America than in Europe,[141] putting the sparrows in competition with bluebirds and other North American cavity nesters, and thereby contributing to their population declines.[78] Especially in warmer areas, the house sparrow may build its nests in the open, on the branches of trees, especially evergreens and hawthorns, or in the nests of large birds such as storks or magpies.[134][141][144] In open nesting sites, breeding success tends to be lower, since breeding begins late and the nest can easily be destroyed or damaged by storms.[141][145] Less common nesting sites include street lights and neon signs, favoured for their warmth; and the old open-topped nests of other songbirds, which are then domed over.[141][142] Usually the couples repeat copulation many times. Every copulation is followed by some break of 3 to 4 seconds, and in that time both pair change their position by some distance. The nest is usually domed, though it may lack a roof in enclosed sites.[141] It has an outer layer of stems and roots, a middle layer of dead grass and leaves, and a lining of feathers, as well as of paper and other soft materials.[142] Nests typically have external dimensions of 20 × 30 cm (8 × 12 in),[134] but their size varies greatly.[142] The building of the nest is initiated by the unmated male while displaying to females. The female assists in building, but is less active than the male.[141] Some nest building occurs throughout the year, especially after moult in autumn. In colder areas house sparrows build specially created roost nests, or roost in street lights, to avoid losing heat during the winter.[141][146] House sparrows do not hold territories, but they defend their nests aggressively against intruders of the same sex.[141] House sparrows' nests support a wide range of scavenging insects, including nest flies such as Neottiophilum praestum, Protocalliphora blowflies,[147][148] and over 1,400 species of beetle.[149] Eggs and young Eggs in a nest Clutches usually comprise four or five eggs, though numbers from one to 10 have been recorded. At least two clutches are usually laid, and up to seven a year may be laid in the tropics or four a year in temperate latitudes. When fewer clutches are laid in a year, especially at higher latitudes, the number of eggs per clutch is greater. Central Asian house sparrows, which migrate and have only one clutch a year, average 6.5 eggs in a clutch. Clutch size is also affected by environmental and seasonal conditions, female age, and breeding density.[150][151] Naked and blind chick A hatchling with yellow gape Some intraspecific brood parasitism occurs, and instances of unusually large numbers of eggs in a nest may be the result of females laying eggs in the nests of their neighbours. Such foreign eggs are sometimes recognised and ejected by females.[150][152] The house sparrow is a victim of interspecific brood parasites, but only rarely, since it usually uses nests in holes too small for parasites to enter, and it feeds its young foods unsuitable for young parasites.[153][154] In turn, the house sparrow has once been recorded as a brood parasite of the American cliff swallow.[152][155] A juvenile, showing its pink bill and obvious nestling gape—the soft, swollen base, which becomes harder and less swollen as the bird matures The eggs are white, bluish white, or greenish white, spotted with brown or grey.[108] Subelliptical in shape,[8] they range from 20 to 22 mm (0.79 to 0.87 in) in length and 14 to 16 mm (0.55 to 0.63 in) in width,[4] have an average mass of 2.9 g (0.10 oz),[156] and an average surface area of 9.18 cm2 (1.423 in2).[157] Eggs from the tropical subspecies are distinctly smaller.[158][159] Eggs begin to develop with the deposition of yolk in the ovary a few days before ovulation. In the day between ovulation and laying, egg white forms, followed by eggshell.[160] Eggs laid later in a clutch are larger, as are those laid by larger females, and egg size is hereditary. Eggs decrease slightly in size from laying to hatching.[161] The yolk comprises 25% of the egg, the egg white 68%, and the shell 7%. Eggs are watery, being 79% liquid, and otherwise mostly protein.[162] The female develops a brood patch of bare skin and plays the main part in incubating the eggs. The male helps, but can only cover the eggs rather than truly incubate them. The female spends the night incubating during this period, while the male roosts near the nest.[150] Eggs hatch at the same time, after a short incubation period lasting 11–14 days, and exceptionally for as many as 17 or as few as 9.[8][134][163] The length of the incubation period decreases as ambient temperature increases later in the breeding season.[164] Young house sparrows remain in the nest for 11 to 23 days, normally 14 to 16 days.[108][164][165] During this time, they are fed by both parents. As newly hatched house sparrows do not have sufficient insulation, they are brooded for a few days, or longer in cold conditions.[164][166] The parents swallow the droppings produced by the hatchlings during the first few days; later, the droppings are moved up to 20 m (66 ft) away from the nest.[166][167] The chicks' eyes open after about 4 days and, at an age of about 8 days, the young birds get their first down.[108][165] If both parents perish, the ensuing intensive begging sounds of the young often attract replacement parents which feed them until they can sustain themselves.[166][168] All the young in the nest leave it during the same period of a few hours. At this stage, they are normally able to fly. They start feeding themselves partly after 1 or 2 days, and sustain themselves completely after 7 to 10 days, 14 at the latest.[169] Survival In adult house sparrows, annual survival is 45–65%.[170] After fledging and leaving the care of their parents, young sparrows have a high mortality rate, which lessens as they grow older and more experienced. Only about 20–25% of birds hatched survive to their first breeding season.[171] The oldest known wild house sparrow lived for nearly two decades; it was found dead 19 years and 9 months after it was ringed in Denmark.[172] The oldest recorded captive house sparrow lived for 23 years.[173] The typical ratio of males to females in a population is uncertain due to problems in collecting data, but a very slight preponderance of males at all ages is usual.[174] Predation A male sparrow being eaten by a cat: Domestic cats are one of the main predators of the house sparrow. The house sparrow's main predators are cats and birds of prey, but many other animals prey on them, including corvids, squirrels,[175] and even humans—the house sparrow has been consumed in the past by people in many parts of the world, and it still is in parts of the Mediterranean.[176] Most species of birds of prey have been recorded preying on the house sparrow in places where records are extensive. Accipiters and the merlin in particular are major predators, though cats are likely to have a greater impact on house sparrow populations.[175] The house sparrow is also a common victim of roadkill; on European roads, it is the bird most frequently found dead.[177] Parasites and disease The house sparrow is host to a huge number of parasites and diseases, and the effect of most is unknown. Ornithologist Ted R. Anderson listed thousands, noting that his list was incomplete.[178] The commonly recorded bacterial pathogens of the house sparrow are often those common in humans, and include Salmonella and Escherichia coli.[179] Salmonella is common in the house sparrow, and a comprehensive study of house sparrow disease found it in 13% of sparrows tested. Salmonella epidemics in the spring and winter can kill large numbers of sparrows.[178] The house sparrow hosts avian pox and avian malaria, which it has spread to the native forest birds of Hawaii.[180] Many of the diseases hosted by the house sparrow are also present in humans and domestic animals, for which the house sparrow acts as a reservoir host.[181] Arboviruses such as the West Nile virus, which most commonly infect insects and mammals, survive winters in temperate areas by going dormant in birds such as the house sparrow.[178][182] A few records indicate disease extirpating house sparrow populations, especially from Scottish islands, but this seems to be rare.[183] House sparrows are also infected by haemosporidian parasites, but less so in urban than in rural areas[184] Toxoplasma gondii has been detected in sparrows in northwestern China where they pose a risk due to their meat being consumed in the region.[185] The house sparrow is infested by a number of external parasites, which usually cause little harm to adult sparrows. In Europe, the most common mite found on sparrows is Proctophyllodes, the most common ticks are Argas reflexus and Ixodes arboricola, and the most common flea on the house sparrow is Ceratophyllus gallinae.[147] Dermanyssus blood-feeding mites are also common ectoparasites of house sparrows,[186] and these mites can enter human habitation and bite humans, causing a condition known as gamasoidosis.[187] A number of chewing lice occupy different niches on the house sparrow's body. Menacanthus lice occur across the house sparrow's body, where they feed on blood and feathers, while Brueelia lice feed on feathers and Philopterus fringillae occurs on the head.[147] Physiology An immature house sparrow sleeping House sparrows express strong circadian rhythms of activity in the laboratory. They were among the first bird species to be seriously studied in terms of their circadian activity and photoperiodism, in part because of their availability and adaptability in captivity, but also because they can "find their way" and remain rhythmic in constant darkness.[188][189] Such studies have found that the pineal gland is a central part of the house sparrow's circadian system: removal of the pineal eliminates the circadian rhythm of activity,[190] and transplant of the pineal into another individual confers to this individual the rhythm phase of the donor bird.[191] The suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus have also been shown to be an important component of the circadian system of house sparrows.[192] The photoreceptors involved in the synchronisation of the circadian clock to the external light-dark cycle are located in the brain and can be stimulated by light reaching them directly though the skull, as revealed by experiments in which blind sparrows, which normally can still synchronise to the light-dark cycle, failed to do so once India ink was injected as a screen under the skin on top of their skulls.[193] Similarly, even when blind, house sparrows continue to be photoperiodic, i.e. show reproductive development when the days are long, but not when the days are short. This response is stronger when the feathers on top of the head are plucked, and is eliminated when India ink is injected under the skin at the top of the head, showing that the photoreceptors involved in the photoperiodic response to day length are located inside the brain.[194] House sparrows have also been used in studies of nonphotic entrainment (i.e. synchronisation to an external cycle other than light and dark): for example, in constant darkness, a situation in which the birds would normally reveal their endogenous, non-24-hour, "free-running" rhythms of activity, they instead show 24-hour periodicity if they are exposed to two hours of chirp playbacks every 24 hours, matching their daily activity onsets with the daily playback onsets.[195] House sparrows in constant dim light can also be entrained to a daily cycle based on the presence of food.[196] Finally, house sparrows in constant darkness could be entrained to a cycle of high and low temperature, but only if the difference in temperature was large (38 °C versus 6 °C); some of the tested sparrows matched their activity to the warm phase, and others to the cold phase.[197] Relationships with humans Duration: 51 seconds.0:51 Flocking and chirping together beneath a fluorescent tube light in Germany The house sparrow is closely associated with humans. They are believed to have become associated with humans around 10,000 years ago. The Turkestan subspecies (P. d. bactrianus) is least associated with humans and considered to be evolutionarily closer to the ancestral noncommensal populations.[198] Usually, the house sparrow is regarded as a pest, since it consumes agricultural products and spreads disease to humans and their domestic animals.[199] Even birdwatchers often hold it in little regard because of its molestation of other birds.[78] In most of the world, the house sparrow is not protected by law. Attempts to control house sparrows include the trapping, poisoning, or shooting of adults; the destruction of their nests and eggs; or less directly, blocking nest holes and scaring off sparrows with noise, glue, or porcupine wire.[200] However, the house sparrow can be beneficial to humans, as well, especially by eating insect pests, and attempts at the large-scale control of the house sparrow have failed.[39] The house sparrow has long been used as a food item. From around 1560 to at least the 19th century in northern Europe, earthenware "sparrow pots" were hung from eaves to attract nesting birds so the young could be readily harvested. Wild birds were trapped in nets in large numbers, and sparrow pie was a traditional dish, thought, because of the association of sparrows with lechery, to have aphrodisiac properties.[201] A traditional Indian medicine, Ciṭṭukkuruvi lēkiyam in Tamil, was sold with similar aphrodisiac claims.[202] Sparrows were also trapped as food for falconers' birds and zoo animals. During the 1870s, there were debates on the damaging effects of sparrows in the House of Commons in England.[203] In the early part of the 20th century, sparrow clubs culled many millions of birds and eggs in an attempt to control numbers of this perceived pest, but with only a localised impact on numbers.[204] House sparrows have been kept as pets at many times in history, though they have no bright plumage or attractive songs, and raising them is difficult.[201] The house sparrow has an extremely large range and population, so it is assessed as least concern for conservation on the IUCN Red List.[1] Population decline The IUCN estimates for the global population runs up to nearly 1.4 billion individuals, second among all wild birds perhaps only to the red-billed quelea in abundance (although the quelea is, unlike the sparrow, restricted to a single continent and has never been subject to human introductions).[1] However, populations have been declining in many parts of the world, especially near its Eurasian places of origin.[205][206][207] These declines were first noticed in North America, where they were initially attributed to the spread of the house finch, but have been most severe in Western Europe.[208][209] Declines have not been universal, as no serious declines have been reported from Eastern Europe, but have even occurred in Australia, where the house sparrow was introduced recently.[210] In Great Britain, populations peaked in the early 1970s,[211] but have since declined by 68% overall,[212] and about 90% in some regions.[213][214] The RSPB lists the house sparrow's UK conservation status as red.[215] In London, the house sparrow almost disappeared from the central city.[213] The numbers of house sparrows in the Netherlands have dropped in half since the 1980s,[96] so the house sparrow is even considered an endangered species.[216] This status came to widespread attention after a female house sparrow, referred to as the "Dominomus", was killed after knocking down dominoes arranged as part of an attempt to set a world record.[217] These declines are not unprecedented, as similar reductions in population occurred when the internal combustion engine replaced horses in the 1920s and a major source of food in the form of grain spillage was lost.[218][219] Declines have been particularly apparent even in North America, where the house sparrow is invasive in some states. Introduced to Philadelphia initially in 1852 the house sparrow rapidly spread across the nation. However, the bird has largely disappeared from the city nowadays and overall, it is estimated to have declined in North America by 84% since 1966.[220] In South Asia, the house sparrow has largely vanished from major cities such as Karachi, Kolkata, Mumbai, New Delhi, and Lahore.[221] Various causes for the dramatic decreases in population have been proposed, including predation, in particular by Eurasian sparrowhawks;[222][223][224] electromagnetic radiation from mobile phones;[225] and diseases[226] such as avian malaria.[227] A shortage of nesting sites caused by changes in urban building design is probably a factor, and conservation organisations have encouraged the use of special nest boxes for sparrows.[226][228][229][230] A primary cause of the decline seems to be an insufficient supply of insect food for nestling sparrows.[226][231] Declines in insect populations result from an increase of monoculture crops, the heavy use of pesticides,[232][233][234] the replacement of native plants in cities with introduced plants and parking areas,[235][236] and possibly the introduction of unleaded petrol, which produces toxic compounds such as methyl nitrite.[237] Protecting insect habitats on farms[238][239] and planting native plants in cities benefit the house sparrow, as does establishing urban green spaces.[240][241] To raise awareness of threats to the house sparrow, World Sparrow Day has been celebrated on 20 March across the world since 2010.[242] Over the recent years, the house sparrow population has been on the decline in many Asian countries, and this decline is quite evident in India. To promote the conservation of these birds, in 2012, the house sparrow was declared as the state bird of Delhi.[243] Cultural associations To many people across the world, the house sparrow is the most familiar wild animal and, because of its association with humans and familiarity, it is frequently used to represent the common and vulgar, or the lewd.[244] One of the reasons for the introduction of house sparrows throughout the world was their association with the European homeland of many immigrants.[82] Birds usually described later as sparrows are referred to in many works of ancient literature and religious texts in Europe and western Asia. These references may not always refer specifically to the house sparrow, or even to small, seed-eating birds, but later writers who were inspired by these texts often had the house sparrow in mind.[39][244][245] In particular, sparrows were associated by the ancient Greeks with Aphrodite, the goddess of love, due to their perceived lustfulness, an association echoed by later writers such as Chaucer and Shakespeare.[39][201][244][246] Jesus's use of "sparrows" as an example of divine providence in the Gospel of Matthew[247] also inspired later references, such as that in Shakespeare's Hamlet[244] and the Gospel hymn His Eye Is on the Sparrow.[248] G37 The house sparrow is very rarely represented in ancient Egyptian art, but an Egyptian hieroglyph is based on it. The sparrow hieroglyph had no phonetic value and was used as a determinative in words to indicate small, narrow, or bad.[249] An alternative view is that the hieroglyph meant "a prolific man" or "the revolution of a year".[250] See also Birds portal House bunting House finch House wren References BirdLife International (2019) [amended version of 2018 assessment]. "Passer domesticus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T103818789A155522130. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T103818789A155522130.en. Retrieved 16 March 2022. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 307–313. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 116–117. "House Sparrow". All About Birds. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Archived from the original on 4 December 2010. Clement, Harris & Davis 1993, p. 443. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 118–121. Johnston, Richard F.; Selander, Robert K (May–June 1973). "Evolution in the House Sparrow. III. Variation in Size and Sexual Dimorphism in Europe and North and South America". The American Naturalist. 107 (955): 373–390. doi:10.1086/282841. JSTOR 2459538. S2CID 84083164. Groschupf, Kathleen (2001). "Old World Sparrows". In Elphick, Chris; Dunning, John B. Jr.; Sibley, David (eds.). The Sibley Guide to Bird Life and Behaviour. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 562–564. ISBN 978-0-7136-6250-4. Felemban, Hassan M. (1997). "Morphological differences among populations of house sparrows from different altitudes in Saudi Arabia" (PDF). The Wilson Bulletin. 109 (3): 539–544. Clement, Harris & Davis 1993, p. 444. Anderson 2006, pp. 202–203. Anderson 2006, pp. 224–225, 244–245. Summers-Smith 1963, pp. 26–30. Cramp & Perrins 1994, p. 291. Summers-Smith 1963, p. 101. Summers-Smith 1963, pp. 30–31. Summers-Smith 1963, pp. 31–32. Summers-Smith 1988, p. 254. Vaurie, Charles; Koelz, Walter (1949). "Notes on some Ploceidae from western Asia". American Museum Novitates (1406). hdl:2246/2345. Summers-Smith 1988, p. 117. Snow & Perrins 1998, pp. 1061–1064. Clement, Harris & Davis 1993, p. 445. Roberts 1992, pp. 472–477. Mullarney et al. 1999, pp. 342–343. Clement, Harris & Davis 1993, pp. 463–465. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 121–122. Linnaeus 1758, p. 183. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 114–115. Brisson 1760, p. 36. Newton, Alfred (1911). "Sparrow" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Summers-Smith 1988, p. 13. Jobling 2009, p. 138. Saikku, Mikko (2004). "House Sparrow". In Krech III, Shepard; McNeill, John Robert; Merchant, Carolyn (eds.). Encyclopedia of World Environmental History. Vol. 3. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-93735-1. Turcotte & Watts 1999, p. 429. Sibley & Monroe 1990, pp. 669–670. Lockwood 1984, pp. 114–146. Swainson 1885, pp. 60–62. Carver 1987, pp. 162, 199. Summers-Smith, J. Denis (2009). "Family Passeridae (Old World Sparrows)". In del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Christie, David (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 14: Bush-shrikes to Old World Sparrows. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN 978-84-96553-50-7. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 253–254. Arnaiz-Villena, Antonio; Gómez-Prieto, Pablo; Ruiz-de-Valle, Valentin (2009). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows". Animal Genetics. Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60741-844-3. Retrieved 2 December 2014. Allende, Luis M.; et al. (2001). "The Old World sparrows (genus Passer) phylogeography and their relative abundance of nuclear mtDNA pseudogenes" (PDF). Journal of Molecular Evolution. 53 (2): 144–154. Bibcode:2001JMolE..53..144A. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.520.4878. doi:10.1007/s002390010202. PMID 11479685. S2CID 21782750. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. González, Javier; Siow, Melanie; Garcia-del-Rey, Eduardo; Delgado, Guillermo; Wink, Michael (2008). Phylogenetic Relationships of the Cape Verde Sparrow based on Mitochondrial and Nuclear DNA (PDF). Systematics 2008, Göttingen. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 July 2011. Summers-Smith 1988, p. 164. Summers-Smith 1988, p. 172. Anderson 2006, p. 16. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 126–127. Töpfer, Till (2006). "The Taxonomic Status of the Italian Sparrow – Passer italiae (Vieillot 1817): Speciation by Stabilised Hybridisation? A Critical Analysis". Zootaxa. 1325: 117–145. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1325.1.8. ISSN 1175-5334. S2CID 35687355. Metzmacher, M. (1986). "Moineaux domestiques et Moineaux espagnols, Passer domesticus et P. hispaniolensis, dans une région de l'ouest algérien: analyse comparative de leur morphologie externe". Le Gerfaut (in French and English). 76: 317–334. Anderson 2006, pp. 13–18, 25–26. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 121–126. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 169–170. Summers-Smith 1992, pp. 22, 27. Gavrilov, E. I. (1965). "On hybridisation of Indian and House Sparrows". Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club. 85: 112–114. Oberholser 1974, p. 1009. Johnston, Richard F.; Selander, Robert K. (March 1971). "Evolution in the House Sparrow. II. Adaptive Differentiation in North American Populations". Evolution. 25 (1): 1–28. doi:10.2307/2406496. JSTOR 2406496. PMID 28562938. Packard, Gary C. (March 1967). "House Sparrows: Evolution of Populations from the Great Plains and Colorado Rockies". Systematic Zoology. 16 (1): 73–89. doi:10.2307/2411519. JSTOR 2411519. Johnston, R. F.; Selander, R. K. (1 May 1964). "House Sparrows: Rapid Evolution of Races in North America". Science. 144 (3618): 548–550. Bibcode:1964Sci...144..548J. doi:10.1126/science.144.3618.548. PMID 17836354. S2CID 31619378. Selander, Robert K.; Johnston, Richard F. (1967). "Evolution in the House Sparrow. I. Intrapopulation Variation in North America" (PDF). The Condor. 69 (3): 217–258. doi:10.2307/1366314. JSTOR 1366314. Hamilton, Suzanne; Johnston, Richard F. (April 1978). "Evolution in the House Sparrow—VI. Variability and Niche Width" (PDF). The Auk. 95 (2): 313–323. Baker, Allan J. (July 1980). "Morphometric Differentiation in New Zealand Populations of the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus)". Evolution. 34 (4): 638–653. doi:10.2307/2408018. JSTOR 2408018. PMID 28563981. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 133–135. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 126–128. Mackworth-Praed & Grant 1955, pp. 870–871. Cramp & Perrins 1994, p. 289. Vaurie, Charles (1956). "Systematic notes on Palearctic birds. No. 24, Ploceidae, the genera Passer, Petronia, and Montifringilla". American Museum Novitates (1814). hdl:2246/5394. Summers-Smith 1988, p. 134. Anderson 2006, pp. 5, 9–12. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 129–137, 280–283. "House Sparrow: Passer domesticus". Bermuda Audubon Society. Bermuda Audubon Society. Retrieved 4 July 2022. Status: Abundant naturalized species. Introduced in 1870 in belief that they would control flies in towns. A major threat to the breeding success of bluebirds. Local Habitat: Widespread in both built-up and in less developed areas. Habits: Nests February to July in roofs, cliffs, trees and bluebird boxes. Lays four to five brown speckled eggs. Anderson 2006, p. 5. Summers-Smith 1963, pp. 171–173. Anderson 2006, p. 22. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 293–296. Martin, Lynn B. II; Fitzgerald, Lisa (2005). "A taste for novelty in invading house sparrows, Passer domesticus". Behavioral Ecology. 16 (4): 702–707. doi:10.1093/beheco/ari044. Lee, Kelly A.; Martin, Lynn B., II; Wikelski, Martin C. (2005). "Responding to inflammatory challenges is less costly for a successful avian invader, the house sparrow (Passer domesticus), than its less-invasive congener" (PDF). Oecologia. 145 (2): 244–251. Bibcode:2005Oecol.145..243L. doi:10.1007/s00442-005-0113-5. PMID 15965757. S2CID 13394657. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2006. Blakers, Davies & Reilly 1984, p. 586. Franklin, K. (2007). "The House Sparrow: Scourge or Scapegoat?". Naturalist News. Audubon Naturalist Society. Archived from the original on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 17 December 2008. Clergeau, Philippe; Levesque, Anthony; Lorvelec, Olivier (2004). "The Precautionary Principle and Biological Invasion: The Case of the House Sparrow on the Lesser Antilles". International Journal of Pest Management. 50 (2): 83–89. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.603.208. doi:10.1080/09670870310001647650. S2CID 13123780. Summers-Smith, J. D. (1990). "Changes in distribution and habitat utilisation by members of the genus Passer". In Pinowski, J.; Summers-Smith, J. D. (eds.). Granivorous birds in the agricultural landscape. Warszawa: Pánstwowe Wydawnictom Naukowe. pp. 11–29. ISBN 978-83-01-08460-8. Barrows 1889, p. 17. Healy, Michael; Mason, Travis V.; Ricou, Laurie (2009). "'hardy/unkillable clichés': Exploring the Meanings of the Domestic Alien, Passer domesticus". Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment. 16 (2): 281–298. doi:10.1093/isle/isp025. Marshall, Peyton (14 May 2014). "The Truth About Sparrows". Opinionator. Retrieved 8 April 2016. "Sparrows". Western Australia Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development. 2 May 2018. Retrieved 7 October 2018. Massam, Marion. "Sparrows" (PDF). Farmnote (117/99). ISSN 0726-934X. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 March 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2009. Anderson 2006, p. 25. Brooke, R. K. (1997). "House Sparrow". In Harrison, J. A.; Allan, D. G.; Underhill, L. G.; Herremans, M.; Tree, A. J.; Parker, V.; Brown, C. J. (eds.). The Atlas of Southern African Birds (PDF). Vol. 1. BirdLife South Africa. Lever 2005, pp. 210–212. Restall, Rodner & Lentino 2007, p. 777. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 137–138. Anderson 2006, pp. 424–425. Hobbs, J. N. (1955). "House Sparrow breeding away from Man" (PDF). The Emu. 55 (4): 202. doi:10.1071/MU955202. Wodzicki, Kazimierz (May 1956). "Breeding of the House Sparrow away from Man in New Zealand" (PDF). Emu. 54 (2): 146–147. doi:10.1071/mu956143e. Summers-Smith 1992, pp. 128–132. Brooke, R. K. (January 1973). "House Sparrows Feeding at Night in New York" (PDF). The Auk. 90 (1): 206. van der Poel, Guus (29 January 2001). "Concerns about the population decline of the House Sparrow Passer domesticus in the Netherlands". Archived from the original on 13 February 2005. Summers-Smith 1988, p. 129. Minock, Michael E. (1969). "Salinity Tolerance and Discrimination in House Sparrows (Passer domesticus)" (PDF). The Condor. 71 (1): 79–80. doi:10.2307/1366060. JSTOR 1366060. Walsberg, Glenn E. (1975). "Digestive Adaptations of Phainopepla nitens Associated with the Eating of Mistletoe Berries" (PDF). The Condor. 77 (2): 169–174. doi:10.2307/1365787. JSTOR 1365787. Melville, David S.; Carey, Geoff J. (1998). "Syntopy of Eurasian Tree Sparrow Passer montanus and House Sparrow P. domesticus in Inner Mongolia, China" (PDF). Forktail. 13: 125. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2010. Summers-Smith 1988, p. 228. Anderson 2006, p. 247. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 139–142. McGillivray, W. Bruce (1980). "Communal Nesting in the House Sparrow" (PDF). Journal of Field Ornithology. 51 (4): 371–372. Johnston, Richard F. (1969). "Aggressive Foraging Behavior in House Sparrows" (PDF). The Auk. 86 (3): 558–559. doi:10.2307/4083421. JSTOR 4083421. Kalinoski, Ronald (1975). "Intra- and Interspecific Aggression in House Finches and House Sparrows" (PDF). The Condor. 77 (4): 375–384. doi:10.2307/1366086. JSTOR 1366086. Reebs, S. G.; Mrosovsky, N. (1990). "Photoperiodism in house sparrows: testing for induction with nonphotic zeitgebers". Physiological Zoology. 63 (3): 587–599. doi:10.1086/physzool.63.3.30156230. S2CID 86062593. Lowther, Peter E.; Cink, Calvin L. (2006). Poole, A. (ed.). "House Sparrow (Passer domesticus)". The Birds of North America Online. Retrieved 21 April 2010. Potter, E. F. (1970). "Anting in wild birds, its frequency and probable purpose" (PDF). Auk. 87 (4): 692–713. doi:10.2307/4083703. JSTOR 4083703. Anderson 2006, pp. 273–275. Anderson 2006, p. 246. Kalmus, H. (1984). "Wall clinging: energy saving by the House Sparrow Passer domesticus". Ibis. 126 (1): 72–74. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1984.tb03667.x. Stidolph, R. D. H. (1974). "The Adaptable House Sparrow". Notornis. 21 (1): 88. Archived from the original on 13 July 2019. Retrieved 24 September 2011. Anderson 2006, pp. 279–281. Gionfriddo, James P.; Best, Louis B. (1995). "Grit Use by House Sparrows: Effects of Diet and Grit Size" (PDF). The Condor. 97 (1): 57–67. doi:10.2307/1368983. JSTOR 1368983. Summers-Smith 1963, pp. 34–35. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 159–161. Summers-Smith 1963, p. 33. Roof, Jennifer. "Passer domesticus house sparrow". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Gavett, Ann P.; Wakeley, James S. (1986). "Diets of House Sparrows in Urban and Rural Habitats" (PDF). The Wilson Bulletin. 98. Summers-Smith 1963, pp. 35, 38–39. Vincent 2005, pp. 2–3. Anderson 2006, pp. 276–279. Anderson, Ted R. (1977). "Reproductive Responses of Sparrows to a Superabundant Food Supply" (PDF). The Condor. 79 (2): 205–208. doi:10.2307/1367163. JSTOR 1367163. Ivanov, Bojidar (1990). "Diet of House Sparrow [Passer domesticus (L.)] nestlings on a livestock farm near Sofia, Bulgaria". In Pinowski, J.; Summers-Smith, J. D. (eds.). Granivorous birds in the agricultural landscape. Warszawa: Pánstwowe Wydawnictom Naukowe. pp. 179–197. ISBN 978-83-01-08460-8. Kohl, K.D.; Brun, A.; Caviedes-Videl, E.; Karasov, W.H. (2019). "Age-related changes in the gut microbiota of wild House Sparrow nestlings". Ibis. 161 (2): 184–191. doi:10.1111/ibi.12618. Schnell, G. D.; Hellack, J. J. (1978). "Flight speeds of Brown Pelicans, Chimney Swifts, and other birds". Bird-Banding. 49 (2): 108–112. doi:10.2307/4512338. JSTOR 4512338. Broun, Maurice (1972). "Apparent migratory behavior in the House Sparrow" (PDF). The Auk. 89 (1): 187–189. doi:10.2307/4084073. JSTOR 4084073. Waddington, Don C.; Cockrem, John F. (1987). "Homing Ability of the House Sparrow". Notornis. 34 (1). Archived from the original on 13 July 2019. Retrieved 24 September 2011. Anderson 2006, pp. 135–136. Hatch, Margret I.; Westneat, David F. (2007). "Age-related patterns of reproductive success in house sparrows Passer domesticus". Journal of Avian Biology. 38 (5): 603–611. doi:10.1111/j.0908-8857.2007.04044.x. Whitfield-Rucker, M.; Cassone, V. M. (2000). "Photoperiodic Regulation of the Male House Sparrow Song Control System: Gonadal Dependent and Independent Mechanisms". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 118 (1): 173–183. doi:10.1006/gcen.2000.7455. PMID 10753579. Birkhead 2012, pp. 47–48. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 144–147. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 142–143. Brackbill, Hervey (1969). "Two Male House Sparrows Copulating on Ground with Same Female" (PDF). The Auk. 86 (1): 146. doi:10.2307/4083563. JSTOR 4083563. Anderson 2006, pp. 141–142. Anderson 2006, p. 145. Anderson 2006, pp. 143–144. Anderson, T. R. (1990). "Excess females in a breeding population of House Sparrows [Passer domesticus (L.)]". In Pinowski, J.; Summers-Smith, J. D. (eds.). Granivorous birds in the agricultural landscape. Warszawa: Pánstwowe Wydawnictom Naukowe. pp. 87–94. ISBN 978-83-01-08460-8. Summers-Smith 1963, pp. 52–57. Indykiewicz, Piotr (1990). "Nest-sites and nests of House Sparrow [Passer domesticus (L.)] in an urban environment". In Pinowski, J.; Summers-Smith, J. D. (eds.). Granivorous birds in the agricultural landscape. Warszawa: Pánstwowe Wydawnictom Naukowe. pp. 95–121. ISBN 978-83-01-08460-8. Gowaty, Patricia Adair (Summer 1984). "House Sparrows Kill Eastern Bluebirds" (PDF). Journal of Field Ornithology. 55 (3): 378–380. Retrieved 1 October 2009. Haverschmidt 1949, pp. 33–34. Morris & Tegetmeier 1896, pp. 8–9. Jansen, R. R. (1983). "House Sparrows build roost nests". The Loon. 55: 64–65. ISSN 0024-645X. Summers-Smith 1963, pp. 131–132. "Neottiophilum praeustum". NatureSpot. Retrieved 10 January 2012. Sustek, Zbyšek; Hokntchova, Daša (1983). "The beetles (Coleoptera) in the nests of Delichon urbica in Slovakia" (PDF). Acta Rerum Naturalium Musei Nationalis Slovaci, Bratislava. XXIX: 119–134. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 March 2012. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 148–149. Anderson 2006, pp. 157–172. Anderson 2006, pp. 145–146. Anderson 2006, p. 319. Davies 2000, p. 55. Stoner, Dayton (December 1939). "Parasitism of the English Sparrow on the Northern Cliff Swallow" (PDF). Wilson Bulletin. 51 (4). "BTO Bird facts: House Sparrow". British Trust for Ornithology. Retrieved 24 November 2009. Paganelli, C. V.; Olszowka, A.; Ali, A. (1974). "The Avian Egg: Surface Area, Volume, and Density" (PDF). The Condor. 76 (3): 319–325. doi:10.2307/1366345. JSTOR 1366345. Ogilvie-Grant 1912, pp. 201–204. Hume & Oates 1890, pp. 169–151. Anderson 2006, pp. 175–176. Anderson 2006, pp. 173–175. Anderson 2006, pp. 176–177. Nice, Margaret Morse (1953). "The Question of Ten-day Incubation Periods" (PDF). The Wilson Bulletin. 65 (2): 81–93. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 149–150. Glutz von Blotzheim & Bauer 1997, p. 60ff. Glutz von Blotzheim & Bauer 1997, pp. 105–115. "Der es von den Dächern pfeift: Der Haussperling (Passer domesticus)" (in German). nature-rings.de. Giebing, Manfred (31 October 2006). "Der Haussperling: Vogel des Jahres 2002" (in German). Archived from the original on 22 November 2007. Glutz von Blotzheim & Bauer 1997, pp. 79–89. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 154–155. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 137–141. "European Longevity Records". EURING: The European Union for Bird Ringing. Retrieved 24 November 2009. "AnAge entry for Passer domesticus". AnAge: the Animal Ageing and Longevity Database. Retrieved 1 February 2010. Anderson 2006, pp. 333–336. Anderson 2006, pp. 304–306. Summers-Smith 1992, pp. 30–33. Erritzoe, J.; Mazgajski, T. D.; Rejt, L. (2003). "Bird casualties on European roads – a review" (PDF). Acta Ornithologica. 38 (2): 77–93. doi:10.3161/068.038.0204. S2CID 52832425. Anderson 2006, pp. 311–317. Summers-Smith 1963, p. 128. van Riper, Charles III; van Riper, Sandra G.; Hansen, Wallace R. (2002). "Epizootiology and Effect of Avian Pox on Hawaiian Forest Birds". The Auk. 119 (4): 929–942. doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2002)119[0929:EAEOAP]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0004-8038. S2CID 449004. Anderson 2006, pp. 427–429. Young, Emma (1 November 2000). "Sparrow suspect". New Scientist. Retrieved 25 May 2010. Summers-Smith 1963, p. 129. Santiago-Alarcon, Diego; Carbó-Ramírez, Pilar; Macgregor-Fors, Ian; Chávez-Zichinelli, Carlos Alberto; Yeh, Pamela J. (2020). "The prevalence of avian haemosporidian parasites in an invasive bird is lower in urban than in non-urban environments". Ibis. 162 (1): 201–214. doi:10.1111/ibi.12699. ISSN 1474-919X. S2CID 91994621. Cong, Wei; Huang, Si-Yang; Zhou, Dong-Hui; Zhang, Xiao-Xuan; Zhang, Nian-Zhang; Zhao, Quan; Zhu, Xing-Quan (2013). "Prevalence and Genetic Characterization of Toxoplasma gondii in House Sparrows (Passer domesticus) in Lanzhou, China". The Korean Journal of Parasitology. 51 (3): 363–367. doi:10.3347/kjp.2013.51.3.363. ISSN 0023-4001. PMC 3712113. PMID 23864750. Poiani, A.; Goldsmith, A. R.; Evans, M. R. (23 March 2000). "Ectoparasites of house sparrows (Passer domesticus): an experimental test of the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis and a new model". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 47 (4): 230–242. doi:10.1007/s002650050660. ISSN 0340-5443. S2CID 5913876. Neill, S. M.; Monk, B. E.; Pembroke, A.C. (1985). "Gamasoidosis: avian mite dermatitis (Dermanyssus gallinae)". British Journal of Dermatology. 113 (s29): 44. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.1985.tb13013.x. ISSN 0007-0963. S2CID 84993822. Menaker, M. (1972). "Nonvisual light reception". Scientific American. 226 (3): 22–29. Bibcode:1972SciAm.226c..22M. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0372-22. PMID 5062027. Binkley, S. (1990). The clockwork sparrow: Time, clocks, and calendars in biological organisms. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Gaston, S.; Menaker, M. (1968). "Pineal function: The biological clock in the sparrow". Science. 160 (3832): 1125–1127. Bibcode:1968Sci...160.1125G. doi:10.1126/science.160.3832.1125. PMID 5647435. S2CID 36220489. Zimmerman, W.; Menaker, M. (1979). "The pineal gland: A pacemaker within the circadian system of the house sparrow". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 76 (2): 999–1003. Bibcode:1979PNAS...76..999Z. doi:10.1073/pnas.76.2.999. PMC 383119. PMID 284425. Takahashi, J. S.; Menaker, M. (1982). "Role of the suprachiasmatic nuclei in the circadian system of the house sparrow, Passer domesticus". Journal of Neuroscience. 2 (6): 815–828. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.02-06-00815.1982. PMC 6564352. PMID 7086486. McMillan, J. P.; Keatts, H. C.; Menaker, M. (1975). "On the role of eyes and brain photoreceptors in the sparrow: Entrainment to light cycles". Journal of Comparative Physiology. 102 (3): 251–256. doi:10.1007/BF01464359. S2CID 34733541. Menaker, M.; Roberts, R.; Elliott, J.; Underwood, H. (1970). "Extraretinal light perception in the sparrow, III. The eyes do not participate in photoperiodic photoreception". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 67 (1): 320––325. Bibcode:1970PNAS...67..320M. doi:10.1073/pnas.67.1.320. PMC 283206. PMID 5272320. Reebs, S.G. (1989). "Acoustical entrainment of circadian activity rhythms in house sparrows: Constant light is not necessary". Ethology. 80 (1–4): 172–181. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1989.tb00737.x. Hau, M.; Gwinner, E. (1992). "Circadian entrainment by feeding cycles in house sparrows, Passer domesticus". Journal of Comparative Physiology A. 170 (4): 403–409. doi:10.1007/BF00191457. PMID 1625216. S2CID 27554235. Eskin, A. (1971). "Some properties of the system controlling the circadian activity rhythm of sparrows". In Menaker, M. (ed.). Biochronometry. Washington: National Academy of Sciences. pp. 55–80. Sætre, G.-P.; et al. (2012). "Single origin of human commensalism in the house sparrow". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 25 (4): 788–796. doi:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2012.02470.x. PMID 22320215. S2CID 11011958. Anderson 2006, pp. 425–429. Invasive Species Specialist Group. "ISSG Database: Ecology of Passer domesticus". Archived from the original on 11 June 2011. Retrieved 16 January 2009. Summers-Smith 2005, pp. 29–35. Susainathan, P. (1921). Bird friends and foes of the farmer. Bulletin No. 81 (Report). Madras: Department of Agriculture. p. 22. Holmes, Matthew (1 August 2017). "The Sparrow Question: Social and Scientific Accord in Britain, 1850–1900". Journal of the History of Biology. 50 (3): 645–671. doi:10.1007/s10739-016-9455-6. ISSN 1573-0387. PMID 27785658. Cocker & Mabey 2005, pp. 436–443. "Even sparrows don't want to live in cities anymore". The Times of India. 13 June 2005. Archived from the original on 11 August 2011. Daniels, R. J. Ranjit (2008). "Can we save the sparrow?" (PDF). Current Science. 95 (11): 1527–1528. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 June 2017. De Laet, J.; Summers-Smith, J. D. (2007). "The status of the urban house sparrow Passer domesticus in northwestern Europe: a review". Journal of Ornithology. 148 (Supplement 2): 275–278. doi:10.1007/s10336-007-0154-0. S2CID 10987859. Anderson 2006, p. 320. Summers-Smith, J. Denis (2005). "Changes in the House Sparrow Population in Britain" (PDF). International Studies on Sparrows. 5: 23–37. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2012. Anderson 2006, pp. 229–300. Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 157–158, 296. "Sparrow numbers 'plummet by 68%'". BBC News. 20 November 2008. Retrieved 6 December 2009. McCarthy, Michael (16 May 2000). "It was once a common or garden bird. Now it's not common or in your garden. Why?". The Independent. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2009. "House sparrow". ARKive. Archived from the original on 3 July 2011. Retrieved 27 July 2011. "House sparrow". RSPB. Retrieved 25 January 2019. Gould, Anne Blair (29 November 2004). "House sparrow dwindling". Radio Nederland Wereldomroep. Archived from the original on 27 November 2005. "Sparrow death mars record attempt". BBC News. 19 November 2005. Retrieved 10 August 2011. Summers-Smith 1988, p. 156. Bergtold, W. H. (April 1921). "The English Sparrow (Passer domesticus) and the Automobile" (PDF). The Auk. 38 (2): 244–250. doi:10.2307/4073887. JSTOR 4073887. "where have all the house sparrows gone?=6 October 2022". blog.nature. 25 March 2019. "sparrows disappearing from the skies of south Asian metropolises=6 October 2022". AA. MacLeod, Ross; Barnett, Phil; Clark, Jacquie; Cresswell, Will (23 March 2006). "Mass-dependent predation risk as a mechanism for house sparrow declines?". Biology Letters. 2 (1): 43–46. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0421. PMC 1617206. PMID 17148322. Bell, Christopher P.; Baker, Sam W.; Parkes, Nigel G.; Brooke, M. de L.; Chamberlain, Dan E. (2010). "The Role of the Eurasian Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) in the Decline of the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) in Britain". The Auk. 127 (2): 411–420. doi:10.1525/auk.2009.09108. S2CID 86228079. McCarthy, Michael (19 August 2010). "Mystery of the vanishing sparrows still baffles scientists 10 years on". The Independent. Retrieved 24 September 2011. Balmori, Alfonso; Hallberg, Örjan (2007). "The Urban Decline of the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus): A Possible Link with Electromagnetic Radiation". Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine. 26 (2): 141–151. doi:10.1080/15368370701410558. PMID 17613041. S2CID 2936866. McCarthy, Michael (20 November 2008). "Mystery of the vanishing sparrow". The Independent. Retrieved 17 January 2009. Dadam, Daria; Robinson, Robert A.; Clements, Anabel; Peach, Will J.; Bennett, Malcolm; Rowcliffe, J. Marcus; Cunningham, Andrew A. (26 July 2019). "Avian malaria-mediated population decline of a widespread iconic bird species". Royal Society Open Science. 6 (7): 182197. Bibcode:2019RSOS....682197D. doi:10.1098/rsos.182197. ISSN 2054-5703. PMC 6689627. PMID 31417708. Vincent, Kate; Baker Shepherd Gillespie (2006). The provision of birds in buildings; turning buildings into bird-friendly habitats. Ecobuild exhibition. Archived from the original (PowerPoint presentation) on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2010. De Laet, Jenny; Summers-Smith, Denis; Mallord, John (2009). "Meeting on the Decline of the Urban House Sparrow Passer domesticus: Newcastle 2009 (24–25 Feb)" (PDF). International Studies on Sparrows. 33: 17–32. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2011. Butler, Daniel (2 February 2009). "Helping birds to nest on Valentine's Day". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 13 February 2009. Retrieved 3 May 2010. Peach, W. J.; Vincent, K. E.; Fowler, J. A.; Grice, P. V. (2008). "Reproductive success of house sparrows along an urban gradient" (PDF). Animal Conservation. 11 (6): 1–11. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2008.00209.x. S2CID 52366095. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 18 January 2010. Vincent 2005, pp. 265–270. Vincent, Kate E.; Peach, Will; Fowler, Jim (2009). An investigation in to the breeding biology and nestling diet of the house sparrow in urban Britain. International Ornithological Congress. Archived from the original (PowerPoint presentation) on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2009. Vincent, Kate E. (2009). Reproductive success of house sparrows along an urban gradient. LIPU – Passeri in crisis?. Pisa, Italy. Archived from the original (PowerPoint presentation) on 25 January 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2010. Clover, Charles (20 November 2008). "On the trail of our missing house sparrows". The Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 1 February 2009. Retrieved 25 May 2010. Smith, Lewis (20 November 2008). "Drivers and gardeners the secret behind flight of house sparrows". The Times. Retrieved 17 January 2009. Summers-Smith, J. Denis (September 2007). "Is unleaded petrol a factor in urban House Sparrow decline?". British Birds. 100: 558. ISSN 0007-0335. Hole, D. G.; et al. (2002). "Ecology and conservation of rural house sparrows". Ecology of Threatened Species. Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. Archived from the original on 3 January 2010. Retrieved 17 January 2010. Hole, David G.; Whittingham, M. J.; Bradbury, Richard B.; Anderson, Guy Q. A.; Lee, Patricia L. M.; Wilson, Jeremy D.; Krebs, John R. (29 August 2002). "Agriculture: Widespread local house-sparrow extinctions". Nature. 418 (6901): 931–932. Bibcode:2002Natur.418..931H. doi:10.1038/418931a. PMID 12198534. S2CID 4382585. Adam, David (20 November 2009). "Leylandii may be to blame for house sparrow decline, say scientists". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 January 2009. Mukherjee, Sarah (20 November 2008). "Making a garden sparrow-friendly". BBC News. Retrieved 17 January 2009. Sathyendran, Nita (21 March 2012). "Spare a thought for the sparrow". The Hindu. Retrieved 22 March 2012. "Save our sparrows". The Hindu. 11 March 2013. Summers-Smith 1963, pp. 49, 215. Shipley, A. E. (1899). "Sparrow". In Cheyne, Thomas Kelley; Black, J. Sutherland (eds.). Encyclopaedia Biblica. Vol. 4. Toronto: Morang. "Sparrow". A Dictionary of Literary Symbols. 2007. Matthew 10:29–31 Todd 2012, pp. 56–58. Houlihan & Goodman 1986, pp. 136–137. Wilkinson 1847, pp. 211–212. Works cited Anderson, Ted R. (2006). Biology of the Ubiquitous House Sparrow: from Genes to Populations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530411-4. Barrows, Walter B. (1889). "The English Sparrow (Passer domesticus) in North America, Especially in its Relations to Agriculture". United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalology Bulletin (1). Birkhead, Tim (2012). Bird Sense: What It's Like to Be a Bird. New York: Walker & Company. ISBN 978-0-8027-7966-3. Blakers, M.; Davies, S. J. J. F.; Reilly, P. N. (1984). The Atlas of Australian Birds. Melbourne University Press. ISBN 978-0-522-84285-2. Brisson, Mathurin Jacques (1760). Ornithologie ou Méthode contenant la division des oiseaux en Ordres, Sections, Genres, Especes & leurs Variétés: a Laquelle on a joint une Description exacte de chaque Espece, avec les Citations des Auteurs qui en ont traité, les Noms qu'ils leur ont donnés, ceux que leur ont donnés les différentes Nations, & les Noms vulgaires (in French). Vol. IV. Paris: Bauche. Carver, Craig M. (1987). American Regional Dialects: a Word Geography. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-10076-7. Cocker, Mark; Mabey, Richard (2005). Birds Britannica. London: Chatto & Windus. ISBN 978-0-7011-6907-7. Clement, Peter; Harris, Alan; Davis, John (1993). Finches and Sparrows: an Identification Guide. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-0-7136-8017-1. Cramp, S.; Perrins, C. M., eds. (1994). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 8, Crows to Finches. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Davies, Nick B. (2000). Cuckoos, Cowbirds, and Other Cheats. illustrated by David Quinn. London: T. & A. D. Poyser. ISBN 978-0-85661-135-3. Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N.; Bauer, K. M. (1997). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas, Band 14-I; Passeriformes (5. Teil). AULA-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-923527-00-7. Haverschmidt, François (1949). The Life of the White Stork. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Houlihan, Patrick E.; Goodman, Steven M. (1986). The Natural History of Egypt, Volume I: The Birds of Ancient Egypt. Warminster: Aris & Philips. ISBN 978-0-85668-283-4. Hume, Allan O.; Oates, Eugene William (1890). The Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds. Vol. II (2nd. ed.). London: R. H. Porter. Jobling, James A. (2009). Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4. Lever, Christopher (2005). Naturalised Birds of the World. T. & A. D. Poyser. ISBN 978-0-7136-7006-6. Linnaeus, Carolus (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. I (10th revised ed.). Holmius: Laurentius Salvius. Lockwood, W. B. (1984). The Oxford Book of British Bird Names. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-214155-2. Mackworth-Praed, C. W.; Grant, C. H. B. (1955). African Handbook of Birds. Series 1: Birds of Eastern and North Eastern Africa. Vol. 2. Toronto: Longmans, Green, and Co. Morris, F. O.; Tegetmeier, W. B. (1896). A Natural History of the Nests and Eggs of British Birds. Vol. II (4th. ed.). Mullarney, Killian; Svensson, Lars; Zetterstrom, Dan; Grant, Peter (1999). Collins Bird Guide (1st. ed.). London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-219728-1. Oberholser, Harry C. (1974). The Bird Life of Texas. Vol. 2. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-70711-5. Ogilvie-Grant, W. R. (1912). Catalogue of the Collection of Birds' Eggs in the British Museum (Natural History) Volume V: Carinatæ (Passeriformes completed). Vol. 5. London: Taylor and Francis. Restall, Robin; Rodner, Clemencia; Lentino, Miguel (2007). The Birds of Northern South America: An Identification Guide. Vol. I. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10862-0. Roberts, Tom J. (1992). The Birds of Pakistan. Volume 2: Passeriformes: Pittas to Buntings. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-577405-4. Sibley, Charles Gald; Monroe, Burt Leavelle (1990). Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04969-5. Snow, David; Perrins, Christopher M., eds. (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 2 (Concise ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-854099-1. Summers-Smith, J. Denis (1963). The House Sparrow. New Naturalist (1st. ed.). London: Collins. Summers-Smith, J. Denis (1988). The Sparrows. illustrated by Robert Gillmor. Calton, Staffs, England: T. & A. D. Poyser. ISBN 978-0-85661-048-6. Summers-Smith, J. Denis (1992). In Search of Sparrows. illustrated by Euan Dunn. London: T. & A. D. Poyser. ISBN 978-0-85661-073-8. Summers-Smith, J. Denis (2005). On Sparrows and Man: A Love-Hate Relationship. Guisborough. ISBN 978-0-9525383-2-5. Swainson, William (1885). Provincial Names and Folk Lore of British Birds. London: Trübner and Co. Todd, Kim (2012). Sparrow. Animal. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-875-3. Turcotte, William H.; Watts, David L. (1999). Birds of Mississippi. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-57806-110-5. Vincent, Kate E. (October 2005). Investigating the causes of the decline of the urban House Sparrow Passer domesticus population in Britain (PDF) (PhD thesis). De Montfort University. Retrieved 2 December 2009. Wilkinson, John Gardner (1847). The manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians. Vol. 5. Edinburgh: John Murray. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Passer domesticus. "House sparrow media". Internet Bird Collection. House sparrow at the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds website Indian sparrow and house sparrow at Birds of Kazakhstan World Sparrow Day vte Old World sparrows (family: Passeridae) Taxon identifiers Wikidata: Q14683Wikispecies: Passer domesticusABA: houspaADW: PasserdomesticusAFD: Passer(Passer)domesticusARKive: passer-domesticusAvibase: 240E33900CE34D44BioLib: 8993BirdLife: 103818789BirdLife-Australia: house-sparrowBOLD: 9688BTO: bob15910CoL: 4DXXMBOW: houspaeBird: houspaEPPO: PASSDOEuring: 15910Fauna Europaea: 97437Fauna Europaea (new): 8fbcce1c-df22-4ebe-abf4-28cce81df03aFossilworks: 373332GBIF: 5231190GISD: 420GNAB: house-sparrowIBC: house-sparrow-passer-domesticusiNaturalist: 13858IRMNG: 10582565ISC: 38975ITIS: 179628IUCN: 103818789NatureServe: 2.106216NBN: NHMSYS0000530537NCBI: 48849Neotropical: houspaNZBO: house-sparrowNZOR: 07ec2042-0164-4dc4-a43f-f16baf7abd38ODNR: house-sparrowTSA: 12965WoRMS: 1451658Xeno-canto: Passer-domesticus Authority control databases: National Edit this at Wikidata Germany Categories: IUCN Red List least concern speciesPasserCosmopolitan birdsStored-product pestsBirds described in 1758Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Bird Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Featured article Page semi-protected Listen to this article From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Bird (disambiguation). "Birds", "Aves", and "Avifauna" redirect here. For other uses, see Birds (disambiguation), Aves (disambiguation), and Avifauna (disambiguation). Birds Temporal range: Late Cretaceous – present, 72–0 Ma[1][2] PreꞒꞒOSDCPTJKPgN Possible Early Cretaceous or early Late Cretaceous origin based on molecular clock[3][4][5] Scientific classificationEdit this classification Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Clade: Sauropsida Clade: Archosauria Clade: Avemetatarsalia Clade: Dinosauria Clade: Theropoda Clade: Ornithurae Class: Aves Linnaeus, 1758[6] Extant clades Palaeognathae (ratites and tinamou) Struthionimorphae (ostrich) Notopalaeognathae Neognathae Pangalloanserae (fowl) Neoaves Synonyms Neornithes Gadow, 1883 Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (/ˈeɪviːz/), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweight skeleton. Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5.5 cm (2.2 in) bee hummingbird to the 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) common ostrich. There are about ten thousand living species, more than half of which are passerine, or "perching" birds. Birds have wings whose development varies according to species; the only known groups without wings are the extinct moa and elephant birds. Wings, which are modified forelimbs, gave birds the ability to fly, although further evolution has led to the loss of flight in some birds, including ratites, penguins, and diverse endemic island species. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have further evolved for swimming. The study of birds is called ornithology. Birds are feathered theropod dinosaurs and constitute the only known living dinosaurs. Likewise, birds are considered reptiles in the modern cladistic sense of the term, and their closest living relatives are the crocodilians. Birds are descendants of the primitive avialans (whose members include Archaeopteryx) which first appeared during the Late Jurassic. According to DNA evidence, modern birds (Neornithes) evolved in the Early to Late Cretaceous, and diversified dramatically around the time of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 mya, which killed off the pterosaurs and all non-avian dinosaurs.[5] Many social species pass on knowledge across generations, which is considered a form of culture. Birds are social, communicating with visual signals, calls, and songs, and participating in such behaviours as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators. The vast majority of bird species are socially (but not necessarily sexually) monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years, and rarely for life. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous (one male with many females) or, rarely, polyandrous (one female with many males). Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised through sexual reproduction. They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Many species of birds are economically important as food for human consumption and raw material in manufacturing, with domesticated and undomesticated birds being important sources of eggs, meat, and feathers. Songbirds, parrots, and other species are popular as pets. Guano (bird excrement) is harvested for use as a fertiliser. Birds figure throughout human culture. About 120 to 130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century, and hundreds more before then. Human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry. Evolution and classification Main article: Evolution of birds Slab of stone with fossil bones and feather impressions Archaeopteryx lithographica is often considered the oldest known true bird. The first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae.[7] Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use.[8] Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the clade Theropoda.[9] Definition Aves and a sister group, the order Crocodilia, contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria. During the late 1990s, Aves was most commonly defined phylogenetically as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica.[10] However, an earlier definition proposed by Jacques Gauthier gained wide currency in the 21st century, and is used by many scientists including adherents to the PhyloCode. Gauthier defined Aves to include only the crown group of the set of modern birds. This was done by excluding most groups known only from fossils, and assigning them, instead, to the broader group Avialae,[11] on the principle that a clade based on extant species should be limited to those extant species and their closest extinct relatives.[11] Gauthier and de Queiroz[12] identified four different definitions for the same biological name "Aves", which is a problem. The authors proposed to reserve the term Aves only for the crown group consisting of the last common ancestor of all living birds and all of its descendants, which corresponds to meaning number 4 below. He assigned other names to the other groups.[citation needed] Reptiles Archosaurs Crocodiles Birds Turtles Squamates Lizards and snakes The birds' phylogenetic relationships to major living reptile groups Aves can mean all archosaurs closer to birds than to crocodiles (alternately Avemetatarsalia) Aves can mean those advanced archosaurs with feathers (alternately Avifilopluma) Aves can mean those feathered dinosaurs that fly (alternately Avialae) Aves can mean the last common ancestor of all the currently living birds and all of its descendants (a "crown group", in this sense synonymous with Neornithes) Under the fourth definition Archaeopteryx, traditionally considered one of the earliest members of Aves, is removed from this group, becoming a non-avian dinosaur instead. These proposals have been adopted by many researchers in the field of palaeontology and bird evolution, though the exact definitions applied have been inconsistent. Avialae, initially proposed to replace the traditional fossil content of Aves, is often used synonymously with the vernacular term "bird" by these researchers.[13] Maniraptoromorpha †Coelurus †Ornitholestes Maniraptoriformes †Ornithomimosauria Maniraptora †Alvarezsauridae Pennaraptora †Oviraptorosauria Paraves Cladogram showing the results of a phylogenetic study by Cau, 2018.[14] Most researchers define Avialae as branch-based clade, though definitions vary. Many authors have used a definition similar to "all theropods closer to birds than to Deinonychus",[15][16] with Troodon being sometimes added as a second external specifier in case it is closer to birds than to Deinonychus.[17] Avialae is also occasionally defined as an apomorphy-based clade (that is, one based on physical characteristics). Jacques Gauthier, who named Avialae in 1986, re-defined it in 2001 as all dinosaurs that possessed feathered wings used in flapping flight, and the birds that descended from them.[12][18] Despite being currently one of the most widely used, the crown-group definition of Aves has been criticised by some researchers. Lee and Spencer (1997) argued that, contrary to what Gauthier defended, this definition would not increase the stability of the clade and the exact content of Aves will always be uncertain because any defined clade (either crown or not) will have few synapomorphies distinguishing it from its closest relatives. Their alternative definition is synonymous to Avifilopluma.[19] Dinosaurs and the origin of birds Main article: Origin of birds Paraves †Scansoriopterygidae †Eosinopteryx Eumaniraptora †Jinfengopteryx †Aurornis †Dromaeosauridae †Troodontidae Avialae Cladogram following the results of a phylogenetic study by Cau et al., 2015[20] Simplified phylogenetic tree showing the relationship between modern birds and other dinosaurs[21] Based on fossil and biological evidence, most scientists accept that birds are a specialised subgroup of theropod dinosaurs[22] and, more specifically, members of Maniraptora, a group of theropods which includes dromaeosaurids and oviraptorosaurs, among others.[23] As scientists have discovered more theropods closely related to birds, the previously clear distinction between non-birds and birds has become blurred. By the 2000s, discoveries in the Liaoning Province of northeast China, which demonstrated many small theropod feathered dinosaurs, contributed to this ambiguity.[24][25][26] Anchiornis huxleyi is an important source of information on the early evolution of birds in the Late Jurassic period.[27] The consensus view in contemporary palaeontology is that the flying theropods, or avialans, are the closest relatives of the deinonychosaurs, which include dromaeosaurids and troodontids.[28] Together, these form a group called Paraves. Some basal members of Deinonychosauria, such as Microraptor, have features which may have enabled them to glide or fly. The most basal deinonychosaurs were very small. This evidence raises the possibility that the ancestor of all paravians may have been arboreal, have been able to glide, or both.[29][30] Unlike Archaeopteryx and the non-avialan feathered dinosaurs, who primarily ate meat, studies suggest that the first avialans were omnivores.[31] The Late Jurassic Archaeopteryx is well known as one of the first transitional fossils to be found, and it provided support for the theory of evolution in the late 19th century. Archaeopteryx was the first fossil to display both clearly traditional reptilian characteristics—teeth, clawed fingers, and a long, lizard-like tail—as well as wings with flight feathers similar to those of modern birds. It is not considered a direct ancestor of birds, though it is possibly closely related to the true ancestor.[32] Early evolution See also: List of fossil bird genera White slab of rock left with cracks and impression of bird feathers and bone, including long paired tail feathers Confuciusornis sanctus, a Cretaceous bird from China that lived 125 million years ago, is the oldest known bird to have a beak.[33] Over 40% of key traits found in modern birds evolved during the 60 million year transition from the earliest bird-line archosaurs to the first maniraptoromorphs, i.e. the first dinosaurs closer to living birds than to Tyrannosaurus rex. The loss of osteoderms otherwise common in archosaurs and acquisition of primitive feathers might have occurred early during this phase.[14][34] After the appearance of Maniraptoromorpha, the next 40 million years marked a continuous reduction of body size and the accumulation of neotenic (juvenile-like) characteristics. Hypercarnivory became increasingly less common while braincases enlarged and forelimbs became longer.[14] The integument evolved into complex, pennaceous feathers.[34] The oldest known paravian (and probably the earliest avialan) fossils come from the Tiaojishan Formation of China, which has been dated to the late Jurassic period (Oxfordian stage), about 160 million years ago. The avialan species from this time period include Anchiornis huxleyi, Xiaotingia zhengi, and Aurornis xui.[13] The well-known probable early avialan, Archaeopteryx, dates from slightly later Jurassic rocks (about 155 million years old) from Germany. Many of these early avialans shared unusual anatomical features that may be ancestral to modern birds but were later lost during bird evolution. These features include enlarged claws on the second toe which may have been held clear of the ground in life, and long feathers or "hind wings" covering the hind limbs and feet, which may have been used in aerial maneuvering.[35] Avialans diversified into a wide variety of forms during the Cretaceous period. Many groups retained primitive characteristics, such as clawed wings and teeth, though the latter were lost independently in a number of avialan groups, including modern birds (Aves).[36] Increasingly stiff tails (especially the outermost half) can be seen in the evolution of maniraptoromorphs, and this process culminated in the appearance of the pygostyle, an ossification of fused tail vertebrae.[14] In the late Cretaceous, about 100 million years ago, the ancestors of all modern birds evolved a more open pelvis, allowing them to lay larger eggs compared to body size.[37] Around 95 million years ago, they evolved a better sense of smell.[38] A third stage of bird evolution starting with Ornithothoraces (the "bird-chested" avialans) can be associated with the refining of aerodynamics and flight capabilities, and the loss or co-ossification of several skeletal features. Particularly significant are the development of an enlarged, keeled sternum and the alula, and the loss of grasping hands. [14] Avialae †Anchiornis †Archaeopteryx †Xiaotingia †Rahonavis †Jeholornis †Jixiangornis Euavialae †Balaur Avebrevicauda †Zhongjianornis †Sapeornis Pygostylia †Confuciusornithiformes †Protopteryx †Pengornis Ornithothoraces Cladogram following the results of a phylogenetic study by Cau et al., 2015[20] Early diversity of bird ancestors See also: Protobirds and Avialae Ornithothoraces †Enantiornithes Euornithes †Archaeorhynchus Ornithuromorpha †Patagopteryx †Vorona †Schizooura †Hongshanornithidae †Jianchangornis †Songlingornithidae †Gansus †Apsaravis Ornithurae †Hesperornithes †Ichthyornis †Vegavis Aves Mesozoic bird phylogeny simplified after Wang et al., 2015's phylogenetic analysis[39] Ichthyornis, which lived 93 million years ago, was the first known prehistoric bird relative preserved with teeth. The first large, diverse lineage of short-tailed avialans to evolve were the Enantiornithes, or "opposite birds", so named because the construction of their shoulder bones was in reverse to that of modern birds. Enantiornithes occupied a wide array of ecological niches, from sand-probing shorebirds and fish-eaters to tree-dwelling forms and seed-eaters. While they were the dominant group of avialans during the Cretaceous period, enantiornithes became extinct along with many other dinosaur groups at the end of the Mesozoic era.[36] Many species of the second major avialan lineage to diversify, the Euornithes (meaning "true birds", because they include the ancestors of modern birds), were semi-aquatic and specialised in eating fish and other small aquatic organisms. Unlike the Enantiornithes, which dominated land-based and arboreal habitats, most early euornithes lacked perching adaptations and likely included shorebird-like species, waders, and swimming and diving species.[40] The latter included the superficially gull-like Ichthyornis[41] and the Hesperornithiformes, which became so well adapted to hunting fish in marine environments that they lost the ability to fly and became primarily aquatic.[36] The early euornithes also saw the development of many traits associated with modern birds, like strongly keeled breastbones, toothless, beaked portions of their jaws (though most non-avian euornithes retained teeth in other parts of the jaws).[42] Euornithes also included the first avialans to develop true pygostyle and a fully mobile fan of tail feathers,[43] which may have replaced the "hind wing" as the primary mode of aerial maneuverability and braking in flight.[35] A study on mosaic evolution in the avian skull found that the last common ancestor of all Neornithes might have had a beak similar to that of the modern hook-billed vanga and a skull similar to that of the Eurasian golden oriole. As both species are small aerial and canopy foraging omnivores, a similar ecological niche was inferred for this hypothetical ancestor.[44] Diversification of modern birds See also: Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy of birds and dinosaur classification Aves Palaeognathae (ratites and tinamous) Neognathae Galloanserae (landfowl and waterfowl) Neoaves (all other birds including perching birds) Major groups of modern birds based on Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy Most studies agree on a Cretaceous age for the most recent common ancestor of modern birds but estimates range from the Early Cretaceous[3][45] to the latest Cretaceous.[46][4] Similarly, there is no agreement on whether most of the early diversification of modern birds occurred in the Cretaceous and associated withe breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana or occurred later and potentially as a consequence of the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event.[47] This disagreement is in part caused by a divergence in the evidence; most molecular dating studies suggests a Cretaceous evolutionary radiation, while fossil evidence points to a Cenozoic radiation (the so-called 'rocks' versus 'clocks' controversy). The discovery of Vegavis from the Maastrichtian, the last stage of the Late Cretaceous proved that the diversification of modern birds started before the Cenozoic era.[48] The affinities of an earlier fossil, the possible galliform Austinornis lentus, dated to about 85 million years ago,[49] are still too controversial to provide a fossil evidence of modern bird diversification. In 2020, Asteriornis from the Maastrichtian was described, it appears to be a close relative of Galloanserae, the earliest diverging lineage within Neognathae.[1] Attempts to reconcile molecular and fossil evidence using genomic-scale DNA data and comprehensive fossil information have not resolved the controversy.[46][50] However, a 2015 estimate that used a new method for calibrating molecular clocks confirmed that while modern birds originated early in the Late Cretaceous, likely in Western Gondwana, a pulse of diversification in all major groups occurred around the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event.[51] Modern birds would have expanded from West Gondwana through two routes. One route was an Antarctic interchange in the Paleogene. The other route was probably via Paleocene land bridges between South American and North America, which allowed for the rapid expansion and diversification of Neornithes into the Holarctic and Paleotropics.[51] On the other hand, the occurrence of Asteriornis in the Northern Hemisphere suggest that Neornithes dispersed out of East Gondwana before the Paleocene.[1] Classification of bird orders See also: List of birds All modern birds lie within the crown group Aves (alternately Neornithes), which has two subdivisions: the Palaeognathae, which includes the flightless ratites (such as the ostriches) and the weak-flying tinamous, and the extremely diverse Neognathae, containing all other birds.[52] These two subdivisions have variously been given the rank of superorder,[53] cohort,[9] or infraclass.[54] Depending on the taxonomic viewpoint, the number of known living bird species is around 10,906[55][56] although other sources may differ in their precise number. Cladogram of modern bird relationships based on Braun & Kimball (2021)[57] Aves Palaeognathae Struthioniformes (ostriches) Rheiformes (rheas) Apterygiformes (kiwis) Tinamiformes (tinamous) Casuariiformes (emu and cassowaries) Neognathae Galloanserae Galliformes (chickens and relatives) Anseriformes (ducks and relatives) Neoaves Mirandornithes Phoenicopteriformes (flamingos) Podicipediformes (grebes) Columbimorphae Columbiformes (pigeons and doves) Mesitornithiformes (mesites) Pterocliformes (sandgrouse) Passerea Otidiformes (bustards) Cuculiformes (cuckoos) Musophagiformes (turacos) Gruiformes (rails and cranes) Charadriiformes (waders and relatives) Opisthocomiformes (hoatzin) Strisores Caprimulgiformes (nightjars) Vanescaves Nyctibiiformes (potoos) Steatornithiformes (oilbird) Podargiformes (frogmouths) Daedalornithes Aegotheliformes (owlet-nightjars) Apodiformes (swifts, treeswifts and hummingbirds) Phaethoquornithes Eurypygimorphae Phaethontiformes (tropicbirds) Eurypygiformes (sunbittern and kagu) Aequornithes Gaviiformes[58] (loons) Austrodyptornithes Procellariiformes (albatrosses and petrels) Sphenisciformes (penguins) Ciconiiformes (storks) Suliformes (boobies, cormorants, etc.) Pelecaniformes (pelicans, herons and ibises) (Ardeae) Telluraves Accipitrimorphae Cathartiformes (New World vultures) Accipitriformes (hawks and relatives) Strigiformes (owls) Coraciimorphae Coliiformes (mousebirds) Cavitaves Leptosomiformes (cuckoo roller) Trogoniformes (trogons and quetzals) Picocoraciae Bucerotiformes (hornbills and relatives) Picodynastornithes Coraciiformes (kingfishers and relatives) Piciformes (woodpeckers and relatives) Australaves Cariamiformes (seriemas) Eufalconimorphae Falconiformes (falcons) Psittacopasserae Psittaciformes (parrots) Passeriformes (passerines) The classification of birds is a contentious issue. Sibley and Ahlquist's Phylogeny and Classification of Birds (1990) is a landmark work on the subject.[59] Most evidence seems to suggest the assignment of orders is accurate,[60] but scientists disagree about the relationships among the orders themselves; evidence from modern bird anatomy, fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem, but no strong consensus has emerged. Fossil and molecular evidence from the 2010s is providing an increasingly clear picture of the evolution of modern bird orders.[46][50] Genomics See also: list of sequenced animal genomes As of 2010, the genome had been sequenced for only two birds, the chicken and the zebra finch. As of 2022 the genomes of 542 species of birds had been completed. At least one genome has been sequenced from every order.[61][62] These include at least one species in about 90% of extant avian families (218 out of 236 families recognised by the Howard and Moore Checklist).[63] Being able to sequence and compare whole genomes gives researchers many types of information, about genes, the DNA that regulates the genes, and their evolutionary history. This has led to reconsideration of some of the classifications that were based solely on the identification of protein-coding genes. Waterbirds such as pelicans and flamingos, for example, may have in common specific adaptations suited to their environment that were developed independently.[61][62] Distribution See also: Lists of birds by region and List of birds by population small bird withpale belly and breast and patterned wing and head stands on concrete The range of the house sparrow has expanded dramatically due to human activities.[64] Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven continents, reaching their southern extreme in the snow petrel's breeding colonies up to 440 kilometres (270 mi) inland in Antarctica.[65] The highest bird diversity occurs in tropical regions. It was earlier thought that this high diversity was the result of higher speciation rates in the tropics; however studies from the 2000s found higher speciation rates in the high latitudes that were offset by greater extinction rates than in the tropics.[66] Many species migrate annually over great distances and across oceans; several families of birds have adapted to life both on the world's oceans and in them, and some seabird species come ashore only to breed,[67] while some penguins have been recorded diving up to 300 metres (980 ft) deep.[68] Many bird species have established breeding populations in areas to which they have been introduced by humans. Some of these introductions have been deliberate; the ring-necked pheasant, for example, has been introduced around the world as a game bird.[69] Others have been accidental, such as the establishment of wild monk parakeets in several North American cities after their escape from captivity.[70] Some species, including cattle egret,[71] yellow-headed caracara[72] and galah,[73] have spread naturally far beyond their original ranges as agricultural expansion created alternative habitats although modern practices of intensive agriculture have negatively impacted farmland bird populations.[74] Anatomy and physiology Main article: Bird anatomy See also: Egg tooth External anatomy of a bird (example: yellow-wattled lapwing): 1 Beak, 2 Head, 3 Iris, 4 Pupil, 5 Mantle, 6 Lesser coverts, 7 Scapulars, 8 Median coverts, 9 Tertials, 10 Rump, 11 Primaries, 12 Vent, 13 Thigh, 14 Tibio-tarsal articulation, 15 Tarsus, 16 Foot, 17 Tibia, 18 Belly, 19 Flanks, 20 Breast, 21 Throat, 22 Wattle, 23 Eyestripe Compared with other vertebrates, birds have a body plan that shows many unusual adaptations, mostly to facilitate flight. Skeletal system Main article: Birdanatomy § Skeletalsystem The skeleton consists of very lightweight bones. They have large air-filled cavities (called pneumatic cavities) which connect with the respiratory system.[75] The skull bones in adults are fused and do not show cranial sutures.[76] The orbital cavities that house the eyeballs are large and separated from each other by a bony septum (partition). The spine has cervical, thoracic, lumbar and caudal regions with the number of cervical (neck) vertebrae highly variable and especially flexible, but movement is reduced in the anterior thoracic vertebrae and absent in the later vertebrae.[77] The last few are fused with the pelvis to form the synsacrum.[76] The ribs are flattened and the sternum is keeled for the attachment of flight muscles except in the flightless bird orders. The forelimbs are modified into wings.[78] The wings are more or less developed depending on the species; the only known groups that lost their wings are the extinct moa and elephant birds.[79] Excretory system Like the reptiles, birds are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys extract nitrogenous waste from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid, instead of urea or ammonia, through the ureters into the intestine. Birds do not have a urinary bladder or external urethral opening and (with exception of the ostrich) uric acid is excreted along with faeces as a semisolid waste.[80][81][82] However, birds such as hummingbirds can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia.[83] They also excrete creatine, rather than creatinine like mammals.[76] This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the bird's cloaca.[84][85] The cloaca is a multi-purpose opening: waste is expelled through it, most birds mate by joining cloaca, and females lay eggs from it. In addition, many species of birds regurgitate pellets.[86] It is a common but not universal feature of altricial passerine nestlings (born helpless, under constant parental care) that instead of excreting directly into the nest, they produce a fecal sac. This is a mucus-covered pouch that allows parents to either dispose of the waste outside the nest or to recycle the waste through their own digestive system.[87] Reproductive system Males within Palaeognathae (with the exception of the kiwis), the Anseriformes (with the exception of screamers), and in rudimentary forms in Galliformes (but fully developed in Cracidae) possess a penis, which is never present in Neoaves.[88][89] The length is thought to be related to sperm competition.[90] For male birds to get an erection, they depend on lymphatic fluid instead of blood.[91] When not copulating, it is hidden within the proctodeum compartment within the cloaca, just inside the vent. Female birds have sperm storage tubules[92] that allow sperm to remain viable long after copulation, a hundred days in some species.[93] Sperm from multiple males may compete through this mechanism. Most female birds have a single ovary and a single oviduct, both on the left side,[94] but there are exceptions: species in at least 16 different orders of birds have two ovaries. Even these species, however, tend to have a single oviduct.[94] It has been speculated that this might be an adaptation to flight, but males have two testes, and it is also observed that the gonads in both sexes decrease dramatically in size outside the breeding season.[95][96] Also terrestrial birds generally have a single ovary, as does the platypus, an egg-laying mammal. A more likely explanation is that the egg develops a shell while passing through the oviduct over a period of about a day, so that if two eggs were to develop at the same time, there would be a risk to survival.[94] While rare, mostly abortive, parthenogenesis is not unknown in birds and eggs can be diploid, automictic and results in male offspring.[97] Birds are solely gonochoric.[98] Meaning they have two sexes: either female or male. The sex of birds is determined by the Z and W sex chromosomes, rather than by the X and Y chromosomes present in mammals. Male birds have two Z chromosomes (ZZ), and female birds have a W chromosome and a Z chromosome (WZ).[76] A complex system of disassortative mating with two morphs is involved in the white-throated sparrow Zonotrichia albicollis, where white- and tan-browed morphs of opposite sex pair, making it appear as if four sexes were involved since any individual is compatible with only a fourth of the population.[99] In nearly all species of birds, an individual's sex is determined at fertilisation. However, one 2007 study claimed to demonstrate temperature-dependent sex determination among the Australian brushturkey, for which higher temperatures during incubation resulted in a higher female-to-male sex ratio.[100] This, however, was later proven to not be the case. These birds do not exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination, but temperature-dependent sex mortality.[101] Respiratory and circulatory systems Birds have one of the most complex respiratory systems of all animal groups.[76] Upon inhalation, 75% of the fresh air bypasses the lungs and flows directly into a posterior air sac which extends from the lungs and connects with air spaces in the bones and fills them with air. The other 25% of the air goes directly into the lungs. When the bird exhales, the used air flows out of the lungs and the stored fresh air from the posterior air sac is simultaneously forced into the lungs. Thus, a bird's lungs receive a constant supply of fresh air during both inhalation and exhalation.[102] Sound production is achieved using the syrinx, a muscular chamber incorporating multiple tympanic membranes which diverges from the lower end of the trachea;[103] the trachea being elongated in some species, increasing the volume of vocalisations and the perception of the bird's size.[104] In birds, the main arteries taking blood away from the heart originate from the right aortic arch (or pharyngeal arch), unlike in the mammals where the left aortic arch forms this part of the aorta.[76] The postcava receives blood from the limbs via the renal portal system. Unlike in mammals, the circulating red blood cells in birds retain their nucleus.[105] Heart type and features Didactic model of an avian heart The avian circulatory system is driven by a four-chambered, myogenic heart contained in a fibrous pericardial sac. This pericardial sac is filled with a serous fluid for lubrication.[106] The heart itself is divided into a right and left half, each with an atrium and ventricle. The atrium and ventricles of each side are separated by atrioventricular valves which prevent back flow from one chamber to the next during contraction. Being myogenic, the heart's pace is maintained by pacemaker cells found in the sinoatrial node, located on the right atrium.[107] The sinoatrial node uses calcium to cause a depolarising signal transduction pathway from the atrium through right and left atrioventricular bundle which communicates contraction to the ventricles. The avian heart also consists of muscular arches that are made up of thick bundles of muscular layers. Much like a mammalian heart, the avian heart is composed of endocardial, myocardial and epicardial layers.[106] The atrium walls tend to be thinner than the ventricle walls, due to the intense ventricular contraction used to pump oxygenated blood throughout the body. Avian hearts are generally larger than mammalian hearts when compared to body mass. This adaptation allows more blood to be pumped to meet the high metabolic need associated with flight.[108] Organisation Birds have a very efficient system for diffusing oxygen into the blood; birds have a ten times greater surface area to gas exchange volume than mammals. As a result, birds have more blood in their capillaries per unit of volume of lung than a mammal.[108] The arteries are composed of thick elastic muscles to withstand the pressure of the ventricular contractions, and become more rigid as they move away from the heart. Blood moves through the arteries, which undergo vasoconstriction, and into arterioles which act as a transportation system to distribute primarily oxygen as well as nutrients to all tissues of the body.[109] As the arterioles move away from the heart and into individual organs and tissues they are further divided to increase surface area and slow blood flow. Blood travels through the arterioles and moves into the capillaries where gas exchange can occur.[citation needed] Capillaries are organised into capillary beds in tissues; it is here that blood exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide waste. In the capillary beds, blood flow is slowed to allow maximum diffusion of oxygen into the tissues. Once the blood has become deoxygenated, it travels through venules then veins and back to the heart. Veins, unlike arteries, are thin and rigid as they do not need to withstand extreme pressure. As blood travels through the venules to the veins a funneling occurs called vasodilation bringing blood back to the heart.[109] Once the blood reaches the heart, it moves first into the right atrium, then the right ventricle to be pumped through the lungs for further gas exchange of carbon dioxide waste for oxygen. Oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs through the left atrium to the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the body.[citation needed] Nervous system Main article: Bird anatomy § Nervous system The nervous system is large relative to the bird's size.[76] The most developed part of the brain of birds is the one that controls the flight-related functions, while the cerebellum coordinates movement and the cerebrum controls behaviour patterns, navigation, mating and nest building. Most birds have a poor sense of smell[110] with notable exceptions including kiwis,[111] New World vultures[112] and tubenoses.[113] The avian visual system is usually highly developed. Water birds have special flexible lenses, allowing accommodation for vision in air and water.[76] Some species also have dual fovea. Birds are tetrachromatic, possessing ultraviolet (UV) sensitive cone cells in the eye as well as green, red and blue ones.[114] They also have double cones, likely to mediate achromatic vision.[115] The nictitating membrane as it covers the eye of a masked lapwing Many birds show plumage patterns in ultraviolet that are invisible to the human eye; some birds whose sexes appear similar to the naked eye are distinguished by the presence of ultraviolet reflective patches on their feathers. Male blue tits have an ultraviolet reflective crown patch which is displayed in courtship by posturing and raising of their nape feathers.[116] Ultraviolet light is also used in foraging—kestrels have been shown to search for prey by detecting the UV reflective urine trail marks left on the ground by rodents.[117] With the exception of pigeons and a few other species,[118] the eyelids of birds are not used in blinking. Instead the eye is lubricated by the nictitating membrane, a third eyelid that moves horizontally.[119] The nictitating membrane also covers the eye and acts as a contact lens in many aquatic birds.[76] The bird retina has a fan shaped blood supply system called the pecten.[76] Eyes of most birds are large, not very round and capable of only limited movement in the orbits,[76] typically 10–20°.[120] Birds with eyes on the sides of their heads have a wide visual field, while birds with eyes on the front of their heads, such as owls, have binocular vision and can estimate the depth of field.[120][121] The avian ear lacks external pinnae but is covered by feathers, although in some birds, such as the Asio, Bubo and Otus owls, these feathers form tufts which resemble ears. The inner ear has a cochlea, but it is not spiral as in mammals.[122] Defence and intraspecific combat A few species are able to use chemical defences against predators; some Procellariiformes can eject an unpleasant stomach oil against an aggressor,[123] and some species of pitohuis from New Guinea have a powerful neurotoxin in their skin and feathers.[124] A lack of field observations limit our knowledge, but intraspecific conflicts are known to sometimes result in injury or death.[125] The screamers (Anhimidae), some jacanas (Jacana, Hydrophasianus), the spur-winged goose (Plectropterus), the torrent duck (Merganetta) and nine species of lapwing (Vanellus) use a sharp spur on the wing as a weapon. The steamer ducks (Tachyeres), geese and swans (Anserinae), the solitaire (Pezophaps), sheathbills (Chionis), some guans (Crax) and stone curlews (Burhinus) use a bony knob on the alular metacarpal to punch and hammer opponents.[125] The jacanas Actophilornis and Irediparra have an expanded, blade-like radius. The extinct Xenicibis was unique in having an elongate forelimb and massive hand which likely functioned in combat or defence as a jointed club or flail. Swans, for instance, may strike with the bony spurs and bite when defending eggs or young.[125] Feathers, plumage, and scales Main articles: Feather, Flight feather, and Down feather Owl with eyes closed in front of similarly coloured tree trunk partly obscured by green leaves The disruptively patterned plumage of the African scops owl allows it to blend in with its surroundings. Feathers are a feature characteristic of birds (though also present in some dinosaurs not currently considered to be true birds). They facilitate flight, provide insulation that aids in thermoregulation, and are used in display, camouflage, and signalling.[76] There are several types of feathers, each serving its own set of purposes. Feathers are epidermal growths attached to the skin and arise only in specific tracts of skin called pterylae. The distribution pattern of these feather tracts (pterylosis) is used in taxonomy and systematics. The arrangement and appearance of feathers on the body, called plumage, may vary within species by age, social status,[126] and sex.[127] Plumage is regularly moulted; the standard plumage of a bird that has moulted after breeding is known as the "non-breeding" plumage, or—in the Humphrey–Parkes terminology—"basic" plumage; breeding plumages or variations of the basic plumage are known under the Humphrey–Parkes system as "alternate" plumages.[128] Moulting is annual in most species, although some may have two moults a year, and large birds of prey may moult only once every few years. Moulting patterns vary across species. In passerines, flight feathers are replaced one at a time with the innermost primary being the first. When the fifth of sixth primary is replaced, the outermost tertiaries begin to drop. After the innermost tertiaries are moulted, the secondaries starting from the innermost begin to drop and this proceeds to the outer feathers (centrifugal moult). The greater primary coverts are moulted in synchrony with the primary that they overlap.[129] A small number of species, such as ducks and geese, lose all of their flight feathers at once, temporarily becoming flightless.[130] As a general rule, the tail feathers are moulted and replaced starting with the innermost pair.[129] Centripetal moults of tail feathers are however seen in the Phasianidae.[131] The centrifugal moult is modified in the tail feathers of woodpeckers and treecreepers, in that it begins with the second innermost pair of feathers and finishes with the central pair of feathers so that the bird maintains a functional climbing tail.[129][132] The general pattern seen in passerines is that the primaries are replaced outward, secondaries inward, and the tail from centre outward.[133] Before nesting, the females of most bird species gain a bare brood patch by losing feathers close to the belly. The skin there is well supplied with blood vessels and helps the bird in incubation.[134] Red parrot with yellow bill and wing feathers in bill Red lory preening Feathers require maintenance and birds preen or groom them daily, spending an average of around 9% of their daily time on this.[135] The bill is used to brush away foreign particles and to apply waxy secretions from the uropygial gland; these secretions protect the feathers' flexibility and act as an antimicrobial agent, inhibiting the growth of feather-degrading bacteria.[136] This may be supplemented with the secretions of formic acid from ants, which birds receive through a behaviour known as anting, to remove feather parasites.[137] The scales of birds are composed of the same keratin as beaks, claws, and spurs. They are found mainly on the toes and metatarsus, but may be found further up on the ankle in some birds. Most bird scales do not overlap significantly, except in the cases of kingfishers and woodpeckers. The scales of birds are thought to be homologous to those of reptiles and mammals.[138] Flight Main articles: Bird flight and Flightless birds Black bird with white chest in flight with wings facing down and tail fanned and down pointing Restless flycatcher in the downstroke of flapping flight Most birds can fly, which distinguishes them from almost all other vertebrate classes. Flight is the primary means of locomotion for most bird species and is used for searching for food and for escaping from predators. Birds have various adaptations for flight, including a lightweight skeleton, two large flight muscles, the pectoralis (which accounts for 15% of the total mass of the bird) and the supracoracoideus, as well as a modified forelimb (wing) that serves as an aerofoil.[76] Wing shape and size generally determine a bird's flight style and performance; many birds combine powered, flapping flight with less energy-intensive soaring flight. About 60 extant bird species are flightless, as were many extinct birds.[139] Flightlessness often arises in birds on isolated islands, most likely due to limited resources and the absence of mammalian land predators.[140] Flightlessness is almost exclusively correlated with gigantism due to an island's inherent condition of isolation.[141] Although flightless, penguins use similar musculature and movements to "fly" through the water, as do some flight-capable birds such as auks, shearwaters and dippers.[142] Behaviour Most birds are diurnal, but some birds, such as many species of owls and nightjars, are nocturnal or crepuscular (active during twilight hours), and many coastal waders feed when the tides are appropriate, by day or night.[143] Diet and feeding Illustration of the heads of 16 types of birds with different shapes and sizes of beak Feeding adaptations in beaks Birds' diets are varied and often include nectar, fruit, plants, seeds, carrion, and various small animals, including other birds.[76] The digestive system of birds is unique, with a crop for storage and a gizzard that contains swallowed stones for grinding food to compensate for the lack of teeth.[144] Some species such as pigeons and some psittacine species do not have a gallbladder.[145] Most birds are highly adapted for rapid digestion to aid with flight.[146] Some migratory birds have adapted to use protein stored in many parts of their bodies, including protein from the intestines, as additional energy during migration.[147] Birds that employ many strategies to obtain food or feed on a variety of food items are called generalists, while others that concentrate time and effort on specific food items or have a single strategy to obtain food are considered specialists.[76] Avian foraging strategies can vary widely by species. Many birds glean for insects, invertebrates, fruit, or seeds. Some hunt insects by suddenly attacking from a branch. Those species that seek pest insects are considered beneficial 'biological control agents' and their presence encouraged in biological pest control programmes.[148] Combined, insectivorous birds eat 400–500 million metric tons of arthropods annually.[149] Nectar feeders such as hummingbirds, sunbirds, lories, and lorikeets amongst others have specially adapted brushy tongues and in many cases bills designed to fit co-adapted flowers.[150] Kiwis and shorebirds with long bills probe for invertebrates; shorebirds' varied bill lengths and feeding methods result in the separation of ecological niches.[76][151] Loons, diving ducks, penguins and auks pursue their prey underwater, using their wings or feet for propulsion,[67] while aerial predators such as sulids, kingfishers and terns plunge dive after their prey. Flamingos, three species of prion, and some ducks are filter feeders.[152][153] Geese and dabbling ducks are primarily grazers.[154][155] Some species, including frigatebirds, gulls,[156] and skuas,[157] engage in kleptoparasitism, stealing food items from other birds. Kleptoparasitism is thought to be a supplement to food obtained by hunting, rather than a significant part of any species' diet; a study of great frigatebirds stealing from masked boobies estimated that the frigatebirds stole at most 40% of their food and on average stole only 5%.[158] Other birds are scavengers; some of these, like vultures, are specialised carrion eaters, while others, like gulls, corvids, or other birds of prey, are opportunists.[159] Water and drinking Water is needed by many birds although their mode of excretion and lack of sweat glands reduces the physiological demands.[160] Some desert birds can obtain their water needs entirely from moisture in their food. They may also have other adaptations such as allowing their body temperature to rise, saving on moisture loss from evaporative cooling or panting.[161] Seabirds can drink seawater and have salt glands inside the head that eliminate excess salt out of the nostrils.[162] Most birds scoop water in their beaks and raise their head to let water run down the throat. Some species, especially of arid zones, belonging to the pigeon, finch, mousebird, button-quail and bustard families are capable of sucking up water without the need to tilt back their heads.[163] Some desert birds depend on water sources and sandgrouse are particularly well known for their daily congregations at waterholes. Nesting sandgrouse and many plovers carry water to their young by wetting their belly feathers.[164] Some birds carry water for chicks at the nest in their crop or regurgitate it along with food. The pigeon family, flamingos and penguins have adaptations to produce a nutritive fluid called crop milk that they provide to their chicks.[165] Feather care Main article: Preening Feathers, being critical to the survival of a bird, require maintenance. Apart from physical wear and tear, feathers face the onslaught of fungi, ectoparasitic feather mites and bird lice.[166] The physical condition of feathers are maintained by preening often with the application of secretions from the preen gland. Birds also bathe in water or dust themselves. While some birds dip into shallow water, more aerial species may make aerial dips into water and arboreal species often make use of dew or rain that collect on leaves. Birds of arid regions make use of loose soil to dust-bathe. A behaviour termed as anting in which the bird encourages ants to run through their plumage is also thought to help them reduce the ectoparasite load in feathers. Many species will spread out their wings and expose them to direct sunlight and this too is thought to help in reducing fungal and ectoparasitic activity that may lead to feather damage.[167][168] Migration Main article: Bird migration A flock of Canada geese in V formation Many bird species migrate to take advantage of global differences of seasonal temperatures, therefore optimising availability of food sources and breeding habitat. These migrations vary among the different groups. Many landbirds, shorebirds, and waterbirds undertake annual long-distance migrations, usually triggered by the length of daylight as well as weather conditions. These birds are characterised by a breeding season spent in the temperate or polar regions and a non-breeding season in the tropical regions or opposite hemisphere. Before migration, birds substantially increase body fats and reserves and reduce the size of some of their organs.[169][170] Migration is highly demanding energetically, particularly as birds need to cross deserts and oceans without refuelling. Landbirds have a flight range of around 2,500 km (1,600 mi) and shorebirds can fly up to 4,000 km (2,500 mi),[76] although the bar-tailed godwit is capable of non-stop flights of up to 10,200 km (6,300 mi).[171] Seabirds also undertake long migrations, the longest annual migration being those of sooty shearwaters, which nest in New Zealand and Chile and spend the northern summer feeding in the North Pacific off Japan, Alaska and California, an annual round trip of 64,000 km (39,800 mi).[172] Other seabirds disperse after breeding, travelling widely but having no set migration route. Albatrosses nesting in the Southern Ocean often undertake circumpolar trips between breeding seasons.[173] A map of the Pacific Ocean with several coloured lines representing bird routes running from New Zealand to Korea The routes of satellite-tagged bar-tailed godwits migrating north from New Zealand. This species has the longest known non-stop migration of any species, up to 10,200 km (6,300 mi). Some bird species undertake shorter migrations, travelling only as far as is required to avoid bad weather or obtain food. Irruptive species such as the boreal finches are one such group and can commonly be found at a location in one year and absent the next. This type of migration is normally associated with food availability.[174] Species may also travel shorter distances over part of their range, with individuals from higher latitudes travelling into the existing range of conspecifics; others undertake partial migrations, where only a fraction of the population, usually females and subdominant males, migrates.[175] Partial migration can form a large percentage of the migration behaviour of birds in some regions; in Australia, surveys found that 44% of non-passerine birds and 32% of passerines were partially migratory.[176] Altitudinal migration is a form of short-distance migration in which birds spend the breeding season at higher altitudes and move to lower ones during suboptimal conditions. It is most often triggered by temperature changes and usually occurs when the normal territories also become inhospitable due to lack of food.[177] Some species may also be nomadic, holding no fixed territory and moving according to weather and food availability. Parrots as a family are overwhelmingly neither migratory nor sedentary but considered to either be dispersive, irruptive, nomadic or undertake small and irregular migrations.[178] The ability of birds to return to precise locations across vast distances has been known for some time; in an experiment conducted in the 1950s, a Manx shearwater released in Boston in the United States returned to its colony in Skomer, in Wales within 13 days, a distance of 5,150 km (3,200 mi).[179] Birds navigate during migration using a variety of methods. For diurnal migrants, the sun is used to navigate by day, and a stellar compass is used at night. Birds that use the sun compensate for the changing position of the sun during the day by the use of an internal clock.[76] Orientation with the stellar compass depends on the position of the constellations surrounding Polaris.[180] These are backed up in some species by their ability to sense the Earth's geomagnetism through specialised photoreceptors.[181] Communication See also: Bird vocalisation Bird song Duration: 39 seconds.0:39 Song of the house wren, a common North American songbird Mimicry Duration: 23 seconds.0:23 A tooth-billed bowerbird mimicking a spangled drongo Drumming Duration: 3 seconds.0:03 A woodpecker drumming on wood Problems playing these files? See media help. Birds communicate primarily using visual and auditory signals. Signals can be interspecific (between species) and intraspecific (within species). Birds sometimes use plumage to assess and assert social dominance,[182] to display breeding condition in sexually selected species, or to make threatening displays, as in the sunbittern's mimicry of a large predator to ward off hawks and protect young chicks.[183] Large brown patterned ground bird with outstretched wings each with a large spot in the centre The startling display of the sunbittern mimics a large predator. Visual communication among birds may also involve ritualised displays, which have developed from non-signalling actions such as preening, the adjustments of feather position, pecking, or other behaviour. These displays may signal aggression or submission or may contribute to the formation of pair-bonds.[76] The most elaborate displays occur during courtship, where "dances" are often formed from complex combinations of many possible component movements;[184] males' breeding success may depend on the quality of such displays.[185] Bird calls and songs, which are produced in the syrinx, are the major means by which birds communicate with sound. This communication can be very complex; some species can operate the two sides of the syrinx independently, allowing the simultaneous production of two different songs.[103] Calls are used for a variety of purposes, including mate attraction,[76] evaluation of potential mates,[186] bond formation, the claiming and maintenance of territories,[76] the identification of other individuals (such as when parents look for chicks in colonies or when mates reunite at the start of breeding season),[187] and the warning of other birds of potential predators, sometimes with specific information about the nature of the threat.[188] Some birds also use mechanical sounds for auditory communication. The Coenocorypha snipes of New Zealand drive air through their feathers,[189] woodpeckers drum for long-distance communication,[190] and palm cockatoos use tools to drum.[191] Flocking and other associations massive flock of tiny birds seen from distance so that birds appear as specks Red-billed queleas, the most numerous species of wild bird,[192] form enormous flocks – sometimes tens of thousands strong. While some birds are essentially territorial or live in small family groups, other birds may form large flocks. The principal benefits of flocking are safety in numbers and increased foraging efficiency.[76] Defence against predators is particularly important in closed habitats like forests, where ambush predation is common and multiple eyes can provide a valuable early warning system. This has led to the development of many mixed-species feeding flocks, which are usually composed of small numbers of many species; these flocks provide safety in numbers but increase potential competition for resources.[193] Costs of flocking include bullying of socially subordinate birds by more dominant birds and the reduction of feeding efficiency in certain cases.[194] Birds sometimes also form associations with non-avian species. Plunge-diving seabirds associate with dolphins and tuna, which push shoaling fish towards the surface.[195] Some species of hornbills have a mutualistic relationship with dwarf mongooses, in which they forage together and warn each other of nearby birds of prey and other predators.[196] Resting and roosting "Roosting" redirects here. For other uses, see Roost. Pink flamingo with grey legs and long neck pressed against body and head tucked under wings Many birds, like this American flamingo, tuck their head into their back when sleeping. The high metabolic rates of birds during the active part of the day is supplemented by rest at other times. Sleeping birds often use a type of sleep known as vigilant sleep, where periods of rest are interspersed with quick eye-opening "peeks", allowing them to be sensitive to disturbances and enable rapid escape from threats.[197] Swifts are believed to be able to sleep in flight and radar observations suggest that they orient themselves to face the wind in their roosting flight.[198] It has been suggested that there may be certain kinds of sleep which are possible even when in flight.[199] Some birds have also demonstrated the capacity to fall into slow-wave sleep one hemisphere of the brain at a time. The birds tend to exercise this ability depending upon its position relative to the outside of the flock. This may allow the eye opposite the sleeping hemisphere to remain vigilant for predators by viewing the outer margins of the flock. This adaptation is also known from marine mammals.[200] Communal roosting is common because it lowers the loss of body heat and decreases the risks associated with predators.[201] Roosting sites are often chosen with regard to thermoregulation and safety.[202] Unusual mobile roost sites include large herbivores on the African savanna that are used by oxpeckers.[203] Many sleeping birds bend their heads over their backs and tuck their bills in their back feathers, although others place their beaks among their breast feathers. Many birds rest on one leg, while some may pull up their legs into their feathers, especially in cold weather. Perching birds have a tendon-locking mechanism that helps them hold on to the perch when they are asleep. Many ground birds, such as quails and pheasants, roost in trees. A few parrots of the genus Loriculus roost hanging upside down.[204] Some hummingbirds go into a nightly state of torpor accompanied with a reduction of their metabolic rates.[205] This physiological adaptation shows in nearly a hundred other species, including owlet-nightjars, nightjars, and woodswallows. One species, the common poorwill, even enters a state of hibernation.[206] Birds do not have sweat glands, but can lose water directly through the skin, and they may cool themselves by moving to shade, standing in water, panting, increasing their surface area, fluttering their throat or using special behaviours like urohidrosis to cool themselves.[207][208] Breeding See also: Category:Avian sexuality, Animal sexual behaviour § Birds, Seabird breeding behaviour, and Sexual selection in birds Social systems Bird faces up with green face, black breast and pink lower body. Elaborate long feathers on the wings and tail. Like others of its family, the male Raggiana bird-of-paradise has elaborate breeding plumage used to impress females.[209] Ninety-five per cent of bird species are socially monogamous. These species pair for at least the length of the breeding season or—in some cases—for several years or until the death of one mate.[210] Monogamy allows for both paternal care and biparental care, which is especially important for species in which care from both the female and the male parent is required in order to successfully rear a brood.[211] Among many socially monogamous species, extra-pair copulation (infidelity) is common.[212] Such behaviour typically occurs between dominant males and females paired with subordinate males, but may also be the result of forced copulation in ducks and other anatids.[213] For females, possible benefits of extra-pair copulation include getting better genes for her offspring and insuring against the possibility of infertility in her mate.[214] Males of species that engage in extra-pair copulations will closely guard their mates to ensure the parentage of the offspring that they raise.[215] Other mating systems, including polygyny, polyandry, polygamy, polygynandry, and promiscuity, also occur.[76] Polygamous breeding systems arise when females are able to raise broods without the help of males.[76] Mating systems vary across bird families[216] but variations within species are thought to be driven by environmental conditions.[217] Breeding usually involves some form of courtship display, typically performed by the male.[218] Most displays are rather simple and involve some type of song. Some displays, however, are quite elaborate. Depending on the species, these may include wing or tail drumming, dancing, aerial flights, or communal lekking. Females are generally the ones that drive partner selection,[219] although in the polyandrous phalaropes, this is reversed: plainer males choose brightly coloured females.[220] Courtship feeding, billing and allopreening are commonly performed between partners, generally after the birds have paired and mated.[221] Homosexual behaviour has been observed in males or females in numerous species of birds, including copulation, pair-bonding, and joint parenting of chicks.[222] Over 130 avian species around the world engage in sexual interactions between the same sex or homosexual behaviours. "Same-sex courtship activities may involve elaborate displays, synchronized dances, gift-giving ceremonies, or behaviors at specific display areas including bowers, arenas, or leks."[223] Territories, nesting and incubation See also: Bird nest Many birds actively defend a territory from others of the same species during the breeding season; maintenance of territories protects the food source for their chicks. Species that are unable to defend feeding territories, such as seabirds and swifts, often breed in colonies instead; this is thought to offer protection from predators. Colonial breeders defend small nesting sites, and competition between and within species for nesting sites can be intense.[224] All birds lay amniotic eggs with hard shells made mostly of calcium carbonate.[76] Hole and burrow nesting species tend to lay white or pale eggs, while open nesters lay camouflaged eggs. There are many exceptions to this pattern, however; the ground-nesting nightjars have pale eggs, and camouflage is instead provided by their plumage. Species that are victims of brood parasites have varying egg colours to improve the chances of spotting a parasite's egg, which forces female parasites to match their eggs to those of their hosts.[225] Yellow weaver (bird) with black head hangs an upside-down nest woven out of grass fronds. Male golden-backed weavers construct elaborate suspended nests out of grass. Bird eggs are usually laid in a nest. Most species create somewhat elaborate nests, which can be cups, domes, plates, mounds, or burrows.[226] Some bird nests can be a simple scrape, with minimal or no lining; most seabird and wader nests are no more than a scrape on the ground. Most birds build nests in sheltered, hidden areas to avoid predation, but large or colonial birds—which are more capable of defence—may build more open nests. During nest construction, some species seek out plant matter from plants with parasite-reducing toxins to improve chick survival,[227] and feathers are often used for nest insulation.[226] Some bird species have no nests; the cliff-nesting common guillemot lays its eggs on bare rock, and male emperor penguins keep eggs between their body and feet. The absence of nests is especially prevalent in open habitat ground-nesting species where any addition of nest material would make the nest more conspicuous. Many ground nesting birds lay a clutch of eggs that hatch synchronously, with precocial chicks led away from the nests (nidifugous) by their parents soon after hatching.[228] Nest made of straw with five white eggs and one grey speckled egg Nest of an eastern phoebe that has been parasitised by a brown-headed cowbird Incubation, which regulates temperature for chick development, usually begins after the last egg has been laid.[76] In monogamous species incubation duties are often shared, whereas in polygamous species one parent is wholly responsible for incubation. Warmth from parents passes to the eggs through brood patches, areas of bare skin on the abdomen or breast of the incubating birds. Incubation can be an energetically demanding process; adult albatrosses, for instance, lose as much as 83 grams (2.9 oz) of body weight per day of incubation.[229] The warmth for the incubation of the eggs of megapodes comes from the sun, decaying vegetation or volcanic sources.[230] Incubation periods range from 10 days (in woodpeckers, cuckoos and passerine birds) to over 80 days (in albatrosses and kiwis).[76] The diversity of characteristics of birds is great, sometimes even in closely related species. Several avian characteristics are compared in the table below.[231][232] Species Adult weight (grams) Incubation (days) Clutches (per year) Clutch size Ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris) 3 13 2.0 2 House sparrow (Passer domesticus) 25 11 4.5 5 Greater roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus) 376 20 1.5 4 Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) 2,200 39 1.0 2 Laysan albatross (Phoebastria immutabilis) 3,150 64 1.0 1 Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) 4,000 40 1.0 1 Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) 4,800 40 1.0 2 Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) 6,050 28 1.0 11 Parental care and fledging Main article: Parental care in birds At the time of their hatching, chicks range in development from helpless to independent, depending on their species. Helpless chicks are termed altricial, and tend to be born small, blind, immobile and naked; chicks that are mobile and feathered upon hatching are termed precocial. Altricial chicks need help thermoregulating and must be brooded for longer than precocial chicks. The young of many bird species do not precisely fit into either the precocial or altricial category, having some aspects of each and thus fall somewhere on an "altricial-precocial spectrum".[233] Chicks at neither extreme but favouring one or the other may be termed semi-precocial[234] or semi-altricial.[235] Looking down on three helpless blind chicks in a nest within the hollow of a dead tree trunk Altricial chicks of a white-breasted woodswallow The length and nature of parental care varies widely amongst different orders and species. At one extreme, parental care in megapodes ends at hatching; the newly hatched chick digs itself out of the nest mound without parental assistance and can fend for itself immediately.[236] At the other extreme, many seabirds have extended periods of parental care, the longest being that of the great frigatebird, whose chicks take up to six months to fledge and are fed by the parents for up to an additional 14 months.[237] The chick guard stage describes the period of breeding during which one of the adult birds is permanently present at the nest after chicks have hatched. The main purpose of the guard stage is to aid offspring to thermoregulate and protect them from predation.[238] Hummingbird perched on edge of tiny nest places food into mouth of one of two chicks A female calliope hummingbird feeding fully grown chicks In some species, both parents care for nestlings and fledglings; in others, such care is the responsibility of only one sex. In some species, other members of the same species—usually close relatives of the breeding pair, such as offspring from previous broods—will help with the raising of the young.[239] Such alloparenting is particularly common among the Corvida, which includes such birds as the true crows, Australian magpie and fairy-wrens,[240] but has been observed in species as different as the rifleman and red kite. Among most groups of animals, male parental care is rare. In birds, however, it is quite common—more so than in any other vertebrate class.[76] Although territory and nest site defence, incubation, and chick feeding are often shared tasks, there is sometimes a division of labour in which one mate undertakes all or most of a particular duty.[241] The point at which chicks fledge varies dramatically. The chicks of the Synthliboramphus murrelets, like the ancient murrelet, leave the nest the night after they hatch, following their parents out to sea, where they are raised away from terrestrial predators.[242] Some other species, such as ducks, move their chicks away from the nest at an early age. In most species, chicks leave the nest just before, or soon after, they are able to fly. The amount of parental care after fledging varies; albatross chicks leave the nest on their own and receive no further help, while other species continue some supplementary feeding after fledging.[243] Chicks may also follow their parents during their first migration.[244] Brood parasites Main article: Brood parasite Small brown bird places an insect in the bill of much larger grey bird in nest Reed warbler raising a common cuckoo, a brood parasite Brood parasitism, in which an egg-layer leaves her eggs with another individual's brood, is more common among birds than any other type of organism.[245] After a parasitic bird lays her eggs in another bird's nest, they are often accepted and raised by the host at the expense of the host's own brood. Brood parasites may be either obligate brood parasites, which must lay their eggs in the nests of other species because they are incapable of raising their own young, or non-obligate brood parasites, which sometimes lay eggs in the nests of conspecifics to increase their reproductive output even though they could have raised their own young.[246] One hundred bird species, including honeyguides, icterids, and ducks, are obligate parasites, though the most famous are the cuckoos.[245] Some brood parasites are adapted to hatch before their host's young, which allows them to destroy the host's eggs by pushing them out of the nest or to kill the host's chicks; this ensures that all food brought to the nest will be fed to the parasitic chicks.[247] Sexual selection The peacock tail in flight, the classic example of a Fisherian runaway Main article: Sexual selection in birds Birds have evolved a variety of mating behaviours, with the peacock tail being perhaps the most famous example of sexual selection and the Fisherian runaway. Commonly occurring sexual dimorphisms such as size and colour differences are energetically costly attributes that signal competitive breeding situations.[248] Many types of avian sexual selection have been identified; intersexual selection, also known as female choice; and intrasexual competition, where individuals of the more abundant sex compete with each other for the privilege to mate. Sexually selected traits often evolve to become more pronounced in competitive breeding situations until the trait begins to limit the individual's fitness. Conflicts between an individual fitness and signalling adaptations ensure that sexually selected ornaments such as plumage colouration and courtship behaviour are "honest" traits. Signals must be costly to ensure that only good-quality individuals can present these exaggerated sexual ornaments and behaviours.[249] Inbreeding depression Main article: Inbreeding depression Inbreeding causes early death (inbreeding depression) in the zebra finch Taeniopygia guttata.[250] Embryo survival (that is, hatching success of fertile eggs) was significantly lower for sib-sib mating pairs than for unrelated pairs.[251] Darwin's finch Geospiza scandens experiences inbreeding depression (reduced survival of offspring) and the magnitude of this effect is influenced by environmental conditions such as low food availability.[252] Inbreeding avoidance Main article: Inbreeding avoidance Incestuous matings by the purple-crowned fairy wren Malurus coronatus result in severe fitness costs due to inbreeding depression (greater than 30% reduction in hatchability of eggs).[253] Females paired with related males may undertake extra pair matings (see Promiscuity#Other animals for 90% frequency in avian species) that can reduce the negative effects of inbreeding. However, there are ecological and demographic constraints on extra pair matings. Nevertheless, 43% of broods produced by incestuously paired females contained extra pair young.[253] Inbreeding depression occurs in the great tit (Parus major) when the offspring produced as a result of a mating between close relatives show reduced fitness. In natural populations of Parus major, inbreeding is avoided by dispersal of individuals from their birthplace, which reduces the chance of mating with a close relative.[254] Southern pied babblers Turdoides bicolor appear to avoid inbreeding in two ways. The first is through dispersal, and the second is by avoiding familiar group members as mates.[255] Cooperative breeding in birds typically occurs when offspring, usually males, delay dispersal from their natal group in order to remain with the family to help rear younger kin.[256] Female offspring rarely stay at home, dispersing over distances that allow them to breed independently, or to join unrelated groups. In general, inbreeding is avoided because it leads to a reduction in progeny fitness (inbreeding depression) due largely to the homozygous expression of deleterious recessive alleles.[257] Cross-fertilisation between unrelated individuals ordinarily leads to the masking of deleterious recessive alleles in progeny.[258][259] Ecology Gran Canaria blue chaffinch, an example of a bird highly specialised in its habitat, in this case in the Canarian pine forests Birds occupy a wide range of ecological positions.[192] While some birds are generalists, others are highly specialised in their habitat or food requirements. Even within a single habitat, such as a forest, the niches occupied by different species of birds vary, with some species feeding in the forest canopy, others beneath the canopy, and still others on the forest floor. Forest birds may be insectivores, frugivores, or nectarivores. Aquatic birds generally feed by fishing, plant eating, and piracy or kleptoparasitism. Many grassland birds are granivores. Birds of prey specialise in hunting mammals or other birds, while vultures are specialised scavengers. Birds are also preyed upon by a range of mammals including a few avivorous bats.[260] A wide range of endo- and ectoparasites depend on birds and some parasites that are transmitted from parent to young have co-evolved and show host-specificity.[261] Some nectar-feeding birds are important pollinators, and many frugivores play a key role in seed dispersal.[262] Plants and pollinating birds often coevolve,[263] and in some cases a flower's primary pollinator is the only species capable of reaching its nectar.[264] Birds are often important to island ecology. Birds have frequently reached islands that mammals have not; on those islands, birds may fulfil ecological roles typically played by larger animals. For example, in New Zealand nine species of moa were important browsers, as are the kererū and kokako today.[262] Today the plants of New Zealand retain the defensive adaptations evolved to protect them from the extinct moa.[265] Many birds act as ecosystem engineers through the construction of nests, which provide important microhabitats and food for hundreds of species of invertebrates.[266][267] Nesting seabirds may affect the ecology of islands and surrounding seas, principally through the concentration of large quantities of guano, which may enrich the local soil[268] and the surrounding seas.[269] A wide variety of avian ecology field methods, including counts, nest monitoring, and capturing and marking, are used for researching avian ecology.[270] Relationship with humans Main article: Human uses of birds Two rows of cages in a dark barn with many white chickens in each cage Industrial farming of chickens Since birds are highly visible and common animals, humans have had a relationship with them since the dawn of man.[271] Sometimes, these relationships are mutualistic, like the cooperative honey-gathering among honeyguides and African peoples such as the Borana.[272] Other times, they may be commensal, as when species such as the house sparrow[273] have benefited from human activities. Several bird species have become commercially significant agricultural pests,[274] and some pose an aviation hazard.[275] Human activities can also be detrimental, and have threatened numerous bird species with extinction (hunting, avian lead poisoning, pesticides, roadkill, wind turbine kills[276] and predation by pet cats and dogs are common causes of death for birds).[277] Birds can act as vectors for spreading diseases such as psittacosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, mycobacteriosis (avian tuberculosis), avian influenza (bird flu), giardiasis, and cryptosporidiosis over long distances. Some of these are zoonotic diseases that can also be transmitted to humans.[278] Economic importance See also: Pet § Birds Illustration of fisherman on raft with pole for punting and numerous black birds on raft The use of cormorants by Asian fishermen is in steep decline but survives in some areas as a tourist attraction. Domesticated birds raised for meat and eggs, called poultry, are the largest source of animal protein eaten by humans; in 2003, 76 million tons of poultry and 61 million tons of eggs were produced worldwide.[279] Chickens account for much of human poultry consumption, though domesticated turkeys, ducks, and geese are also relatively common.[280] Many species of birds are also hunted for meat. Bird hunting is primarily a recreational activity except in extremely undeveloped areas. The most important birds hunted in North and South America are waterfowl; other widely hunted birds include pheasants, wild turkeys, quail, doves, partridge, grouse, snipe, and woodcock.[citation needed] Muttonbirding is also popular in Australia and New Zealand.[281] Although some hunting, such as that of muttonbirds, may be sustainable, hunting has led to the extinction or endangerment of dozens of species.[282] Other commercially valuable products from birds include feathers (especially the down of geese and ducks), which are used as insulation in clothing and bedding, and seabird faeces (guano), which is a valuable source of phosphorus and nitrogen. The War of the Pacific, sometimes called the Guano War, was fought in part over the control of guano deposits.[283] Birds have been domesticated by humans both as pets and for practical purposes. Colourful birds, such as parrots and mynas, are bred in captivity or kept as pets, a practice that has led to the illegal trafficking of some endangered species.[284] Falcons and cormorants have long been used for hunting and fishing, respectively. Messenger pigeons, used since at least 1 AD, remained important as recently as World War II. Today, such activities are more common either as hobbies, for entertainment and tourism,[285] Amateur bird enthusiasts (called birdwatchers, twitchers or, more commonly, birders) number in the millions.[286] Many homeowners erect bird feeders near their homes to attract various species. Bird feeding has grown into a multimillion-dollar industry; for example, an estimated 75% of households in Britain provide food for birds at some point during the winter.[287] In religion and mythology Woodcut of three long-legged and long-necked birds The 3 of Birds by the Master of the Playing Cards, 15th-century Germany Birds play prominent and diverse roles in religion and mythology. In religion, birds may serve as either messengers or priests and leaders for a deity, such as in the Cult of Makemake, in which the Tangata manu of Easter Island served as chiefs[288] or as attendants, as in the case of Hugin and Munin, the two common ravens who whispered news into the ears of the Norse god Odin. In several civilisations of ancient Italy, particularly Etruscan and Roman religion, priests were involved in augury, or interpreting the words of birds while the "auspex" (from which the word "auspicious" is derived) watched their activities to foretell events.[289] They may also serve as religious symbols, as when Jonah (Hebrew: יונה, dove) embodied the fright, passivity, mourning, and beauty traditionally associated with doves.[290] Birds have themselves been deified, as in the case of the common peacock, which is perceived as Mother Earth by the people of southern India.[291] In the ancient world, doves were used as symbols of the Mesopotamian goddess Inanna (later known as Ishtar),[292][293] the Canaanite mother goddess Asherah,[292][293][294] and the Greek goddess Aphrodite.[292][293][295][296][297] In ancient Greece, Athena, the goddess of wisdom and patron deity of the city of Athens, had a little owl as her symbol.[298][299][300] In religious images preserved from the Inca and Tiwanaku empires, birds are depicted in the process of transgressing boundaries between earthly and underground spiritual realms.[301] Indigenous peoples of the central Andes maintain legends of birds passing to and from metaphysical worlds.[301] In culture and folklore Further information: Birds in Meitei culture Painted tiles with design of birds from Qajar dynasty Birds have featured in culture and art since prehistoric times, when they were represented in early cave painting[302] and carvings.[303] Some birds have been perceived as monsters, including the mythological Roc and the Māori's legendary Pouākai, a giant bird capable of snatching humans.[304] Birds were later used as symbols of power, as in the magnificent Peacock Throne of the Mughal and Persian emperors.[305] With the advent of scientific interest in birds, many paintings of birds were commissioned for books.[citation needed] Among the most famous of these bird artists was John James Audubon, whose paintings of North American birds were a great commercial success in Europe and who later lent his name to the National Audubon Society.[306] Birds are also important figures in poetry; for example, Homer incorporated nightingales into his Odyssey, and Catullus used a sparrow as an erotic symbol in his Catullus 2.[307] The relationship between an albatross and a sailor is the central theme of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which led to the use of the term as a metaphor for a 'burden'.[308] Other English metaphors derive from birds; vulture funds and vulture investors, for instance, take their name from the scavenging vulture.[309] Aircraft, particularly military aircraft, are frequently named after birds. The predatory nature of raptors make them popular choices for fighter aircraft such as the F-16 Fighting Falcon and the Harrier Jump Jet, while the names of seabirds may be chosen for aircraft primarily used by naval forces such as the HU-16 Albatross and the V-22 Osprey.[310] The flag of Dominica prominently features the Sisserou Parrot, its national bird. Perceptions of bird species vary across cultures. Owls are associated with bad luck, witchcraft, and death in parts of Africa,[311] but are regarded as wise across much of Europe.[312] Hoopoes were considered sacred in Ancient Egypt and symbols of virtue in Persia, but were thought of as thieves across much of Europe and harbingers of war in Scandinavia.[313] In heraldry, birds, especially eagles, often appear in coats of arms[314] In vexillology, birds are a popular choice on flags. Birds feature in the flag designs of 17 countries and numerous subnational entities and territories.[315] Birds are used by nations to symbolize a country's identity and heritage, with 91 countries officially recognizing a national bird. Birds of prey are highly represented, though some nations have chosen other species of birds with parrots being popular among smaller, tropical nations.[316] In music Main article: Birds in music In music, birdsong has influenced composers and musicians in several ways: they can be inspired by birdsong; they can intentionally imitate bird song in a composition, as Vivaldi, Messiaen, and Beethoven did, along with many later composers; they can incorporate recordings of birds into their works, as Ottorino Respighi first did; or like Beatrice Harrison and David Rothenberg, they can duet with birds.[317][318][319][320] A 2023 archaeological excavation of a 10000-year-old site in Israel yielded hollow wing bones of coots and ducks with perforations made on the side that are thought to have allowed them to be used as flutes or whistles possibly used by Natufian people to lure birds of prey.[321] Conservation Main article: Bird conservation See also: Late Quaternary prehistoric birds, List of extinct birds, and Raptor conservation Large black bird with featherless head and hooked bill The California condor once numbered only 22 birds, but conservation measures have raised that to over 500 today. Although human activities have allowed the expansion of a few species, such as the barn swallow and European starling, they have caused population decreases or extinction in many other species. Over a hundred bird species have gone extinct in historical times,[322] although the most dramatic human-caused avian extinctions, eradicating an estimated 750–1800 species, occurred during the human colonisation of Melanesian, Polynesian, and Micronesian islands.[323] Many bird populations are declining worldwide, with 1,227 species listed as threatened by BirdLife International and the IUCN in 2009.[324][325] The most commonly cited human threat to birds is habitat loss.[326] Other threats include overhunting, accidental mortality due to collisions with buildings or vehicles, long-line fishing bycatch,[327] pollution (including oil spills and pesticide use),[328] competition and predation from nonnative invasive species,[329] and climate change. Governments and conservation groups work to protect birds, either by passing laws that preserve and restore bird habitat or by establishing captive populations for reintroductions. Such projects have produced some successes; one study estimated that conservation efforts saved 16 species of bird that would otherwise have gone extinct between 1994 and 2004, including the California condor and Norfolk parakeet.[330] See also Animal track Avian sleep Bat Climate change and birds Glossary of bird terms List of individual birds Ornithology Paleocene dinosaurs References Field, Daniel J.; Benito, Juan; Chen, Albert; Jagt, John W. M.; Ksepka, Daniel T. (March 2020). "Late Cretaceous neornithine from Europe illuminates the origins of crown birds". Nature. 579 (7799): 397–401. Bibcode:2020Natur.579..397F. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2096-0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 32188952. S2CID 212937591. De Pietri, Vanesa L.; Scofield, R. Paul; Zelenkov, Nikita; Boles, Walter E.; Worthy, Trevor H. (February 2016). "The unexpected survival of an ancient lineage of anseriform birds into the Neogene of Australia: the youngest record of Presbyornithidae". Royal Society Open Science. 3 (2): 150635. Bibcode:2016RSOS....350635D. doi:10.1098/rsos.150635. PMC 4785986. PMID 26998335. Yonezawa, T.; et al. (2017). "Phylogenomics and Morphology of Extinct Paleognaths Reveal the Origin and Evolution of the Ratites". Current Biology. 27 (1): 68–77. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.10.029. PMID 27989673. Kuhl, H.; Frankl-Vilches, C.; Bakker, A.; Mayr, G.; Nikolaus, G.; Boerno, S. T.; Klages, S.; Timmermann, B.; Gahr, M. (2020). "An unbiased molecular approach using 3'UTRs resolves the avian family-level tree of life". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 38 (1): 108–127. doi:10.1093/molbev/msaa191. hdl:21.11116/0000-0007-B72A-C. PMC 7783168. PMID 32781465. Crouch, N. M. A. (2022). "Interpreting the fossil record and the origination of birds". bioRxiv. doi:10.1101/2022.05.19.492716. S2CID 249047881. Brands, Sheila (14 August 2008). "Systema Naturae 2000 / Classification, Class Aves". Project: The Taxonomicon. Retrieved 11 June 2012. del Hoyo, Josep; Andy Elliott; Jordi Sargatal (1992). Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-10-5. Linnaeus, Carolus (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata (in Latin). Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 824. Livezey, Bradley C.; Zusi, RL (January 2007). "Higher-order phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda, Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative anatomy. II. Analysis and discussion". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 149 (1): 1–95. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00293.x. PMC 2517308. PMID 18784798. Padian, Kevin; Philip J. Currie (1997). "Bird Origins". Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 41–96. ISBN 0-12-226810-5. Gauthier, Jacques (1986). "Saurischian monophyly and the origin of birds". In Padian, Kevin (ed.). The Origin of Birds and the Evolution of Flight. Memoirs of the California Academy of Science. Vol. 8. San Francisco, CA: Published by California Academy of Sciences. pp. 1–55. ISBN 0-940228-14-9. Gauthier, J.; de Queiroz, K. (2001). "Feathered dinosaurs, flying dinosaurs, crown dinosaurs, and the name Aves". In Gauthier, J. A.; Gall, L. F. (eds.). New perspectives on the origin and early evolution of birds: proceedings of the International Symposium in Honor of John H. Ostrom. New Haven, CT: Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University. pp. 7–41. Godefroit, Pascal; Andrea Cau; Hu Dong-Yu; François Escuillié; Wu Wenhao; Gareth Dyke (2013). "A Jurassic avialan dinosaur from China resolves the early phylogenetic history of birds". Nature. 498 (7454): 359–362. Bibcode:2013Natur.498..359G. doi:10.1038/nature12168. PMID 23719374. S2CID 4364892. Cau, Andrea (2018). "The assembly of the avian body plan: a 160-million-year long process" (PDF). Bollettino della Società Paleontologica Italiana. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; Osmólska, Halszka, eds. (2004). The Dinosauria (Second ed.). University of California Press. pp. 861 pp. Senter, P. (2007). "A new look at the phylogeny of Coelurosauria (Dinosauria: Theropoda)". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 5 (4): 429–463. Bibcode:2007JSPal...5..429S. doi:10.1017/S1477201907002143. S2CID 83726237. Maryańska, Teresa; Osmólska, Halszka; Wolsan, Mieczysław (2002). "Avialan status for Oviraptorosauria". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. S2CID 55462557. Gauthier, J. (1986). "Saurischian monophyly and the origin of birds". In Padian, K. (ed.). The origin of birds and the evolution of flight. San Francisco, California: Mem. Calif. Acad. Sci. pp. 1–55. Lee, Michael S. Y.; Spencer, Patrick S. (1 January 1997). "CHAPTER 3 – Crown-Clades, Key Characters and Taxonomic Stability: When Is an Amniote not and Amniote?". In Sumida, Stuart S.; Martin, Karen L. M. (eds.). Amniote Origins. Academic Press. pp. 61–84. ISBN 978-0-12-676460-4. Retrieved 14 May 2020. Cau, Andrea; Brougham, Tom; Naish, Darren (2015). "The phylogenetic affinities of the bizarre Late Cretaceous Romanian theropod Balaur bondoc(Dinosauria, Maniraptora): Dromaeosaurid or flightless bird?". PeerJ. 3: e1032. doi:10.7717/peerj.1032. PMC 4476167. PMID 26157616. Plotnick, Roy E.; Theodor, Jessica M.; Holtz, Thomas R. (24 September 2015). "Jurassic Pork: What Could a Jewish Time Traveler Eat?". Evolution: Education and Outreach. 8 (1): 17. doi:10.1186/s12052-015-0047-2. ISSN 1936-6434. S2CID 16195453. Prum, Richard O. (19 December 2008). "Who's Your Daddy?". Science. 322 (5909): 1799–1800. doi:10.1126/science.1168808. PMID 19095929. S2CID 206517571. Paul, Gregory S. (2002). "Looking for the True Bird Ancestor". Dinosaurs of the Air: The Evolution and Loss of Flight in Dinosaurs and Birds. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 171–224. ISBN 0-8018-6763-0. Norell, Mark; Mick Ellison (2005). Unearthing the Dragon: The Great Feathered Dinosaur Discovery. New York: Pi Press. ISBN 0-13-186266-9. Borenstein, Seth (31 July 2014). "Study traces dinosaur evolution into early birds". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2014. Lee, Michael S. Y.; Cau, Andrea; Naish, Darren; Dyke, Gareth J. (1 August 2014). "Sustained miniaturization and anatomical innovation in the dinosaurian ancestors of birds". Science. 345 (6196): 562–566. Bibcode:2014Sci...345..562L. doi:10.1126/science.1252243. PMID 25082702. S2CID 37866029. Li, Q.; Gao, K.-Q.; Vinther, J.; Shawkey, M. D.; Clarke, J. A.; d'Alba, L.; Meng, Q.; Briggs, D. E. G. & Prum, R. O. (2010). "Plumage color patterns of an extinct dinosaur" (PDF). Science. 327 (5971): 1369–1372. Bibcode:2010Sci...327.1369L. doi:10.1126/science.1186290. PMID 20133521. S2CID 206525132. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Xing Xu; Hailu You; Kai Du; Fenglu Han (28 July 2011). "An Archaeopteryx-like theropod from China and the origin of Avialae". Nature. 475 (7357): 465–470. doi:10.1038/nature10288. PMID 21796204. S2CID 205225790. Turner, Alan H.; Pol, D.; Clarke, J. A.; Erickson, G. M.; Norell, M. A. (7 September 2007). "A basal dromaeosaurid and size evolution preceding avian flight" (PDF). Science. 317 (5843): 1378–1381. Bibcode:2007Sci...317.1378T. doi:10.1126/science.1144066. PMID 17823350. S2CID 2519726. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Xu, X.; Zhou, Z.; Wang, X.; Kuang, X.; Zhang, F.; Du, X. (23 January 2003). "Four-winged dinosaurs from China" (PDF). Nature. 421 (6921): 335–340. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..335X. doi:10.1038/nature01342. PMID 12540892. S2CID 1160118. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 June 2020. Luiggi, Christina (July 2011). "On the Origin of Birds". The Scientist. Archived from the original on 16 June 2012. Retrieved 11 June 2012. Mayr, G.; Pohl, B.; Hartman, S.; Peters, D. S. (January 2007). "The tenth skeletal specimen of Archaeopteryx". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 149 (1): 97–116. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00245.x. Ivanov, M.; Hrdlickova, S.; Gregorova, R. (2001). The Complete Encyclopedia of Fossils. Netherlands: Rebo Publishers. p. 312. Benton, Michael J.; Dhouailly, Danielle; Jiang, Baoyu; McNamara, Maria (1 September 2019). "The Early Origin of Feathers". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 34 (9): 856–869. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2019.04.018. hdl:10468/8068. ISSN 0169-5347. PMID 31164250. S2CID 174811556. Zheng, X.; Zhou, Z.; Wang, X.; Zhang, F.; Zhang, X.; Wang, Y.; Wei, G.; Wang, S.; Xu, X. (15 March 2013). "Hind Wings in Basal Birds and the Evolution of Leg Feathers". Science. 339 (6125): 1309–1312. Bibcode:2013Sci...339.1309Z. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1031.5732. doi:10.1126/science.1228753. PMID 23493711. S2CID 206544531. Chiappe, Luis M. (2007). Glorified Dinosaurs: The Origin and Early Evolution of Birds. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-86840-413-4. Pickrell, John (22 March 2018). "Early birds may have been too hefty to sit on their eggs". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-03447-3. Agency France-Presse (April 2011). "Birds survived dino extinction with keen senses". Cosmos Magazine. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2012. Wang, M.; Zheng, X.; O'Connor, J. K.; Lloyd, G. T.; Wang, X.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, X.; Zhou, Z. (2015). "The oldest record of ornithuromorpha from the early cretaceous of China". Nature Communications. 6 (6987): 6987. Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.6987W. doi:10.1038/ncomms7987. PMC 5426517. PMID 25942493. Brusatte, S.L.; O'Connor, J.K.; Jarvis, J.D. (2015). "The Origin and Diversification of Birds". Current Biology. 25 (19): R888–R898. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2015.08.003. PMID 26439352. S2CID 3099017. Clarke, Julia A. (2004). "Morphology, Phylogenetic Taxonomy, and Systematics of Ichthyornis and Apatornis (Avialae: Ornithurae)" (PDF). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 286: 1–179. doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2004)2862.0.CO;2. hdl:2246/454. S2CID 84035285. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2009. Retrieved 14 September 2007. Louchart, A.; Viriot, L. (2011). "From snout to beak: the loss of teeth in birds". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 26 (12): 663–673. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2011.09.004. PMID 21978465. Archived from the original on 28 July 2014. Clarke, J. A.; Zhou, Z.; Zhang, F. (March 2006). "Insight into the evolution of avian flight from a new clade of Early Cretaceous ornithurines from China and the morphology of Yixianornis grabaui". Journal of Anatomy. 208 (3): 287–308. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00534.x. PMC 2100246. PMID 16533313. Felice, Ryan N.; Goswami, Anjali (2018). "Developmental origins of mosaic evolution in the avian cranium". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 115 (3): 555–60. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115..555F. doi:10.1073/pnas.1716437115. PMC 5776993. PMID 29279399. Lee, Michael S. Y.; Cau, Andrea; Naish, Darren; Dyke, Gareth J. (May 2014). "Morphological Clocks in Paleontology, and a Mid-Cretaceous Origin of Crown Aves" (PDF). Systematic Biology. Oxford Journals. 63 (1): 442–449. doi:10.1093/sysbio/syt110. PMID 24449041. Prum, R. O.; et al. (2015). "A comprehensive phylogeny of birds (Aves) using targeted next-generation DNA sequencing". Nature. 526 (7574): 569–573. Bibcode:2015Natur.526..569P. doi:10.1038/nature15697. PMID 26444237. S2CID 205246158. Ericson, Per G.P.; et al. (2006). "Diversification of Neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and fossils" (PDF). Biology Letters. 2 (4): 543–547. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0523. PMC 1834003. PMID 17148284. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 4 July 2008. Clarke, Julia A.; Tambussi, Claudia P.; Noriega, Jorge I.; Erickson, Gregory M.; Ketcham, Richard A. (January 2005). "Definitive fossil evidence for the extant avian radiation in the Cretaceous" (PDF). Nature. 433 (7023): 305–308. Bibcode:2005Natur.433..305C. doi:10.1038/nature03150. hdl:11336/80763. PMID 15662422. S2CID 4354309. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 June 2020. Clarke, J. A. (2004). "Morphology, phylogenetic taxonomy, and systematics of Ichthyornis and Apatornis (Avialae: Ornithurae)". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 286: 1–179. doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2004)2862.0.co;2. hdl:2246/454. S2CID 84035285. Archived from the original on 19 June 2015. Retrieved 22 March 2015. Jarvis, E. D.; et al. (2014). "Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds". Science. 346 (6215): 1320–1331. Bibcode:2014Sci...346.1320J. doi:10.1126/science.1253451. PMC 4405904. PMID 25504713. Claramunt, S.; Cracraft, J. (2015). "A new time tree reveals Earth history's imprint on the evolution of modern birds". Sci Adv. 1 (11): e1501005. Bibcode:2015SciA....1E1005C. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1501005. PMC 4730849. PMID 26824065. Mitchell, K. J.; Llamas, B.; Soubrier, J.; Rawlence, N. J.; Worthy, T. H.; Wood, J.; Lee, M. S. Y.; Cooper, A. (23 May 2014). "Ancient DNA reveals elephant birds and kiwi are sister taxa and clarifies ratite bird evolution" (PDF). Science. 344 (6186): 898–900. Bibcode:2014Sci...344..898M. doi:10.1126/science.1251981. hdl:2328/35953. PMID 24855267. S2CID 206555952. Ritchison, Gary. "Bird biogeography". Avian Biology. Eastern Kentucky University. Retrieved 10 April 2008. Cracraft, J. (2013). "Avian Higher-level Relationships and Classification: Nonpasseriforms". In Dickinson, E. C.; Remsen, J. V. (eds.). The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. Vol. 1 (4th ed.). Aves Press, Eastbourne, U.K. pp. xxi–xli. "Welcome". IOC World Bird List 9.2. doi:10.14344/ioc.ml.9.2. "October 2022 | Clements Checklist". www.birds.cornell.edu. Retrieved 6 January 2023. Braun, E. L.; Kimball, R. T. (2021). "Data types and the phylogeny of Neoaves". Birds. 2 (1): 1–22. doi:10.3390/birds2010001. Boyd, John (2007). "NEORNITHES: 46 Orders" (PDF). John Boyd's website. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 30 December 2017. Sibley, Charles; Jon Edward Ahlquist (1990). Phylogeny and classification of birds. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04085-7. Mayr, Ernst; Short, Lester L. (1970). Species Taxa of North American Birds: A Contribution to Comparative Systematics. Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, no. 9. Cambridge, MA: Nuttall Ornithological Club. OCLC 517185. Holmes, Bob (10 February 2022). "Learning about birds from their genomes". Knowable Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-021022-1. Retrieved 11 February 2022. Bravo, Gustavo A.; Schmitt, C. Jonathan; Edwards, Scott V. (3 November 2021). "What Have We Learned from the First 500 Avian Genomes?". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 52 (1): 611–639. doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012121-085928. ISSN 1543-592X. S2CID 239655248. Feng, Shaohong; et al. (2020). "Dense sampling of bird diversity increases power of comparative genomics". Nature. 587 (7833): 252–257. Bibcode:2020Natur.587..252F. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2873-9. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 7759463. PMID 33177665. Newton, Ian (2003). The Speciation and Biogeography of Birds. Amsterdam: Academic Press. p. 463. ISBN 0-12-517375-X. Brooke, Michael (2004). Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850125-0. Weir, Jason T.; Schluter, D (2007). "The Latitudinal Gradient in Recent Speciation and Extinction Rates of Birds and Mammals". Science. 315 (5818): 1574–1576. Bibcode:2007Sci...315.1574W. doi:10.1126/science.1135590. PMID 17363673. S2CID 46640620. Schreiber, Elizabeth Anne; Joanna Burger (2001). Biology of Marine Birds. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-9882-7. Sato, Katsufumi; Naito, Y.; Kato, A.; Niizuma, Y.; Watanuki, Y.; Charrassin, J. B.; Bost, C. A.; Handrich, Y.; Le Maho, Y. (1 May 2002). "Buoyancy and maximal diving depth in penguins: do they control inhaling air volume?". Journal of Experimental Biology. 205 (9): 1189–1197. doi:10.1242/jeb.205.9.1189. PMID 11948196. Hill, David; Peter Robertson (1988). The Pheasant: Ecology, Management, and Conservation. Oxford: BSP Professional. ISBN 0-632-02011-3. Spreyer, Mark F.; Enrique H. Bucher (1998). "Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus)". The Birds of North America. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. doi:10.2173/bna.322. Retrieved 13 December 2015. Arendt, Wayne J. (1 January 1988). "Range Expansion of the Cattle Egret, (Bubulcus ibis) in the Greater Caribbean Basin". Colonial Waterbirds. 11 (2): 252–262. doi:10.2307/1521007. JSTOR 1521007. Bierregaard, R. O. (1994). "Yellow-headed Caracara". In Josep del Hoyo; Andrew Elliott; Jordi Sargatal (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 2; New World Vultures to Guineafowl. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-15-6. Juniper, Tony; Mike Parr (1998). Parrots: A Guide to the Parrots of the World. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 0-7136-6933-0. Weijden, Wouter van der; Terwan, Paul; Guldemond, Adriaan, eds. (2010). Farmland Birds across the World. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. p. 4. ISBN 9788496553637. Ehrlich, Paul R.; David S. Dobkin; Darryl Wheye (1988). "Adaptations for Flight". Birds of Stanford. Stanford University. Retrieved 13 December 2007. Based on The Birder's Handbook (Paul Ehrlich, David Dobkin, and Darryl Wheye. 1988. Simon and Schuster, New York.) Gill, Frank (1995). Ornithology. New York: WH Freeman and Co. ISBN 0-7167-2415-4. Noll, Paul. "The Avian Skeleton". paulnoll.com. Retrieved 13 December 2007. "Skeleton of a typical bird". Fernbank Science Center's Ornithology Web. Retrieved 13 December 2007. "The Surprising Closest Relative of the Huge Elephant Birds". Science & Innovation. 22 May 2014. Archived from the original on 14 December 2018. Retrieved 6 March 2019. Ehrlich, Paul R.; David S. Dobkin; Darryl Wheye (1988). "Drinking". Birds of Stanford. Stanford University. Retrieved 13 December 2007. Tsahar, Ella; Martínez Del Rio, C; Izhaki, I; Arad, Z (2005). "Can birds be ammonotelic? Nitrogen balance and excretion in two frugivores". Journal of Experimental Biology. 208 (6): 1025–1034. doi:10.1242/jeb.01495. PMID 15767304. S2CID 18540594. Skadhauge, E; Erlwanger, KH; Ruziwa, SD; Dantzer, V; Elbrønd, VS; Chamunorwa, JP (2003). "Does the ostrich (Struthio camelus) coprodeum have the electrophysiological properties and microstructure of other birds?". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A. 134 (4): 749–755. doi:10.1016/S1095-6433(03)00006-0. PMID 12814783. Preest, Marion R.; Beuchat, Carol A. (April 1997). "Ammonia excretion by hummingbirds". Nature. 386 (6625): 561–562. Bibcode:1997Natur.386..561P. doi:10.1038/386561a0. S2CID 4372695. Mora, J.; Martuscelli, J; Ortiz Pineda, J; Soberon, G (1965). "The regulation of urea-biosynthesis enzymes in vertebrates". Biochemical Journal. 96 (1): 28–35. doi:10.1042/bj0960028. PMC 1206904. PMID 14343146. Packard, Gary C. (1966). "The Influence of Ambient Temperature and Aridity on Modes of Reproduction and Excretion of Amniote Vertebrates". The American Naturalist. 100 (916): 667–682. doi:10.1086/282459. JSTOR 2459303. S2CID 85424175. Balgooyen, Thomas G. (1 October 1971). "Pellet Regurgitation by Captive Sparrow Hawks (Falco sparverius)" (PDF). Condor. 73 (3): 382–385. doi:10.2307/1365774. JSTOR 1365774. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 February 2014. "What Are Fecal Sacs? Bird Diapers, Basically". Audubon. 7 August 2018. Retrieved 17 January 2021. Yong, Ed (6 June 2013). "Phenomena: Not Exactly Rocket Science How Chickens Lost Their Penises (And Ducks Kept Theirs)". Phenomena.nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on 9 June 2013. Retrieved 3 October 2013. "Ornithology, 3rd Edition – Waterfowl: Order Anseriformes". Archived from the original on 22 June 2015. Retrieved 3 October 2013. McCracken, KG (2000). "The 20-cm Spiny Penis of the Argentine Lake Duck (Oxyura vittata)" (PDF). The Auk. 117 (3): 820–825. doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2000)117[0820:TCSPOT]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 5717257. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Marcus, Adam (2011). "Ostrich penis clears up evolutionary mystery". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2011.9600. S2CID 84524738. Sasanami, Tomohiro; Matsuzaki, Mei; Mizushima, Shusei; Hiyama, Gen (2013). "Sperm Storage in the Female Reproductive Tract in Birds". Journal of Reproduction and Development. 59 (4): 334–338. doi:10.1262/jrd.2013-038. ISSN 0916-8818. PMC 3944358. PMID 23965601. Birkhead, T. R.; Møller, P. (1993). "Sexual selection and the temporal separation of reproductive events: sperm storage data from reptiles, birds and mammals". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 50 (4): 295–311. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1993.tb00933.x. Guioli, Silvana; Nandi, Sunil; Zhao, Debiao; Burgess-Shannon, Jessica; Lovell-Badge, Robin; Clinton, Michael (2014). "Gonadal Asymmetry and Sex Determination in Birds". Sexual Development. 8 (5): 227–242. doi:10.1159/000358406. ISSN 1661-5433. PMID 24577119. S2CID 3035039. Dawson, Alistair (April 2015). "Annual gonadal cycles in birds: Modeling the effects of photoperiod on seasonal changes in GnRH-1 secretion". Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. 37: 52–64. doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.08.004. PMID 25194876. S2CID 13704885. Farner, Donald S.; Follett, Brian K.; King, James R.; Morton, Msrtin L. (February 1966). "A Quantitative Examination of Ovarian Growth in the White-Crowned Sparrow". The Biological Bulletin. 130 (1): 67–75. doi:10.2307/1539953. JSTOR 1539953. PMID 5948479. Ramachandran, R.; McDaniel, C. D. (2018). "Parthenogenesis in birds: a review". Reproduction. 155 (6): R245–R257. doi:10.1530/REP-17-0728. ISSN 1470-1626. PMID 29559496. S2CID 4017618. Kobayashi, Kazuya; Kitano, Takeshi; Iwao, Yasuhiro; Kondo, Mariko (1 June 2018). Reproductive and Developmental Strategies: The Continuity of Life. Springer. p. 290. ISBN 978-4-431-56609-0. Tuttle, Elaina M.; Bergland, Alan O.; Korody, Marisa L.; Brewer, Michael S.; Newhouse, Daniel J.; Minx, Patrick; Stager, Maria; Betuel, Adam; Cheviron, Zachary A.; Warren, Wesley C.; Gonser, Rusty A.; Balakrishnan, Christopher N. (2016). "Divergence and Functional Degradation of a Sex Chromosome-like Supergene". Current Biology. 26 (3): 344–350. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2015.11.069. PMC 4747794. PMID 26804558. Göth, Anne (2007). "Incubation temperatures and sex ratios in Australian brush-turkey (Alectura lathami) mounds". Austral Ecology. 32 (4): 278–285. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2007.01709.x. Göth, A; Booth, DT (March 2005). "Temperature-dependent sex ratio in a bird". Biology Letters. 1 (1): 31–33. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2004.0247. PMC 1629050. PMID 17148121. Maina, John N. (November 2006). "Development, structure, and function of a novel respiratory organ, the lung-air sac system of birds: to go where no other vertebrate has gone". Biological Reviews. 81 (4): 545–579. doi:10.1017/S1464793106007111. PMID 17038201. Suthers, Roderick A.; Sue Anne Zollinger (June 2004). "Producing song: the vocal apparatus". Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1016 (1): 109–129. Bibcode:2004NYASA1016..109S. doi:10.1196/annals.1298.041. PMID 15313772. S2CID 45809019. Fitch, W.T. (1999). "Acoustic exaggeration of size in birds via tracheal elongation: comparative and theoretical analyses". Journal of Zoology. 248: 31–48. doi:10.1017/S095283699900504X. Scott, Robert B. (March 1966). "Comparative hematology: The phylogeny of the erythrocyte". Annals of Hematology. 12 (6): 340–351. doi:10.1007/BF01632827. PMID 5325853. S2CID 29778484. Whittow, G. (2000). Whittow, G. Causey (ed.). Sturkie's Avian Physiology. San Diego: Academic Press. Molnar, Charles; Gair, Jane (14 May 2015). "21.3. Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels". Hoagstrom, C.W. (2002). "Vertebrate Circulation". Magill's Encyclopedia of Science: Animal Life. Pasadena, California: Salem Press. 1: 217–219. Hill, Richard W. (2012). Hill, Richard W.; Wyse, Gordon A.; Anderson, Margaret (eds.). Animal Physiology (Third ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. pp. 647–678. Barbara, Taylor (2004). pockets: birds. UK: Dorling Kindersley. p. 16. ISBN 0-7513-5176-8. Sales, James (2005). "The endangered kiwi: a review" (PDF). Folia Zoologica. 54 (1–2): 1–20. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 15 September 2007. Ehrlich, Paul R.; David S. Dobkin; Darryl Wheye (1988). "The Avian Sense of Smell". Birds of Stanford. Stanford University. Retrieved 13 December 2007. Lequette, Benoit; Verheyden, Christophe; Jouventin, Pierre (August 1989). "Olfaction in Subantarctic seabirds: Its phylogenetic and ecological significance" (PDF). The Condor. 91 (3): 732–735. doi:10.2307/1368131. JSTOR 1368131. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 December 2013. Wilkie, Susan E.; Vissers, P. M.; Das, D.; Degrip, W. J.; Bowmaker, J. K.; Hunt, D. M. (February 1998). "The molecular basis for UV vision in birds: spectral characteristics, cDNA sequence and retinal localization of the UV-sensitive visual pigment of the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)". Biochemical Journal. 330 (Pt 1): 541–547. doi:10.1042/bj3300541. PMC 1219171. PMID 9461554. Olsson, Peter; Lind, Olle; Kelber, Almut; Simmons, Leigh (2018). "Chromatic and achromatic vision: parameter choice and limitations for reliable model predictions". Behavioral Ecology. 29 (2): 273–282. doi:10.1093/beheco/arx133. ISSN 1045-2249. S2CID 90704358. Andersson, S.; J. Ornborg; M. Andersson (1998). "Ultraviolet sexual dimorphism and assortative mating in blue tits". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 265 (1395): 445–450. doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0315. PMC 1688915. Viitala, Jussi; Korplmäki, Erkki; Palokangas, Pälvl; Koivula, Minna (1995). "Attraction of kestrels to vole scent marks visible in ultraviolet light". Nature. 373 (6513): 425–427. Bibcode:1995Natur.373..425V. doi:10.1038/373425a0. S2CID 4356193. Pettingill, Olin Sewall Jr. (1985). Ornithology in Laboratory and Field. Fifth Edition. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. p. 11. ISBN 0-12-552455-2. Williams, David L.; Flach, E (March 2003). "Symblepharon with aberrant protrusion of the nictitating membrane in the snowy owl (Nyctea scandiaca)". Veterinary Ophthalmology. 6 (1): 11–13. doi:10.1046/j.1463-5224.2003.00250.x. PMID 12641836. Land, M. F. (2014). "Eye movements of vertebrates and their relation to eye form and function". Journal of Comparative Physiology A. 201 (2): 195–214. doi:10.1007/s00359-014-0964-5. PMID 25398576. S2CID 15836436. Martin, Graham R.; Katzir, G (1999). "Visual fields in Short-toed Eagles, Circaetus gallicus (Accipitridae), and the function of binocularity in birds". Brain, Behavior and Evolution. 53 (2): 55–66. doi:10.1159/000006582. PMID 9933782. S2CID 44351032. Saito, Nozomu (1978). "Physiology and anatomy of avian ear". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 64 (S1): S3. Bibcode:1978ASAJ...64....3S. doi:10.1121/1.2004193. Warham, John (1 May 1977). "The incidence, function and ecological significance of petrel stomach oils" (PDF). Proceedings of the New Zealand Ecological Society. 24 (3): 84–93. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Dumbacher, J.P.; Beehler, BM; Spande, TF; Garraffo, HM; Daly, JW (October 1992). "Homobatrachotoxin in the genus Pitohui: chemical defense in birds?". Science. 258 (5083): 799–801. Bibcode:1992Sci...258..799D. doi:10.1126/science.1439786. PMID 1439786. Longrich, N.R.; Olson, S.L. (5 January 2011). "The bizarre wing of the Jamaican flightless ibis Xenicibis xympithecus: a unique vertebrate adaptation". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 278 (1716): 2333–2337. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.2117. PMC 3119002. PMID 21208965. Belthoff, James R.; Dufty; Gauthreaux (1 August 1994). "Plumage Variation, Plasma Steroids and Social Dominance in Male House Finches". The Condor. 96 (3): 614–625. doi:10.2307/1369464. JSTOR 1369464. Guthrie, R. Dale. "How We Use and Show Our Social Organs". Body Hot Spots: The Anatomy of Human Social Organs and Behavior. Archived from the original on 21 June 2007. Retrieved 19 October 2007. Humphrey, Philip S.; Parkes, K. C. (1 June 1959). "An approach to the study of molts and plumages" (PDF). The Auk. 76 (1): 1–31. doi:10.2307/4081839. JSTOR 4081839. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Pettingill Jr. OS (1970). Ornithology in Laboratory and Field. Burgess Publishing Co. ISBN 0-12-552455-2. de Beer, S. J.; Lockwood, G. M.; Raijmakers, J. H. F. S.; Raijmakers, J. M. H.; Scott, W. A.; Oschadleus, H. D.; Underhill, L. G. (2001). SAFRING Bird Ringing Manual (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 October 2017. Gargallo, Gabriel (1 June 1994). "Flight Feather Moult in the Red-Necked Nightjar Caprimulgus ruficollis". Journal of Avian Biology. 25 (2): 119–124. doi:10.2307/3677029. JSTOR 3677029. Mayr, Ernst (1954). "The tail molt of small owls" (PDF). The Auk. 71 (2): 172–178. doi:10.2307/4081571. JSTOR 4081571. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2014. Payne, Robert B. "Birds of the World, Biology 532". Bird Division, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Archived from the original on 26 February 2012. Retrieved 20 October 2007. Turner, J. Scott (1997). "On the thermal capacity of a bird's egg warmed by a brood patch". Physiological Zoology. 70 (4): 470–480. doi:10.1086/515854. PMID 9237308. S2CID 26584982. Walther, Bruno A. (2005). "Elaborate ornaments are costly to maintain: evidence for high maintenance handicaps". Behavioral Ecology. 16 (1): 89–95. doi:10.1093/beheco/arh135. Shawkey, Matthew D.; Pillai, Shreekumar R.; Hill, Geoffrey E. (2003). "Chemical warfare? Effects of uropygial oil on feather-degrading bacteria". Journal of Avian Biology. 34 (4): 345–349. doi:10.1111/j.0908-8857.2003.03193.x. Ehrlich, Paul R. (1986). "The Adaptive Significance of Anting" (PDF). The Auk. 103 (4): 835. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016. Lucas, Alfred M. (1972). Avian Anatomy – integument. East Lansing, Michigan: USDA Avian Anatomy Project, Michigan State University. pp. 67, 344, 394–601. Roots, Clive (2006). Flightless Birds. Westport: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33545-7. McNab, Brian K. (October 1994). "Energy Conservation and the Evolution of Flightlessness in Birds". The American Naturalist. 144 (4): 628–642. doi:10.1086/285697. JSTOR 2462941. S2CID 86511951. "Flightlessness - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". Kovacs, Christopher E.; Meyers, RA (2000). "Anatomy and histochemistry of flight muscles in a wing-propelled diving bird, the Atlantic Puffin, Fratercula arctica". Journal of Morphology. 244 (2): 109–125. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4687(200005)244:23.0.CO;2-0. PMID 10761049. S2CID 14041453. Robert, Michel; McNeil, Raymond; Leduc, Alain (January 1989). "Conditions and significance of night feeding in shorebirds and other water birds in a tropical lagoon" (PDF). The Auk. 106 (1): 94–101. doi:10.2307/4087761. JSTOR 4087761. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2014. Gionfriddo, James P.; Best (1 February 1995). "Grit Use by House Sparrows: Effects of Diet and Grit Size" (PDF). Condor. 97 (1): 57–67. doi:10.2307/1368983. JSTOR 1368983. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Hagey, Lee R.; Vidal, Nicolas; Hofmann, Alan F.; Krasowski, Matthew D. (2010). "Complex Evolution of Bile Salts in Birds". The Auk. 127 (4): 820–831. doi:10.1525/auk.2010.09155. PMC 2990222. PMID 21113274. Attenborough, David (1998). The Life of Birds. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01633-X. Battley, Phil F.; Piersma, T; Dietz, MW; Tang, S; Dekinga, A; Hulsman, K (January 2000). "Empirical evidence for differential organ reductions during trans-oceanic bird flight". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 267 (1439): 191–195. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.0986. PMC 1690512. PMID 10687826. (Erratum in Proceedings of the Royal Society B 267(1461):2567.) Reid, N. (2006). "Birds on New England wool properties – A woolgrower guide" (PDF). Land, Water & Wool Northern Tablelands Property Fact Sheet. Australian Government – Land and Water Australia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 March 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2010. Nyffeler, M.; Şekercioğlu, Ç. H.; Whelan, C. J. (August 2018). "Insectivorous birds consume an estimated 400–500 million tons of prey annually". The Science of Nature. 105 (7–8): 47. Bibcode:2018SciNa.105...47N. doi:10.1007/s00114-018-1571-z. PMC 6061143. PMID 29987431. Paton, D. C.; Collins, B.G. (1 April 1989). "Bills and tongues of nectar-feeding birds: A review of morphology, function, and performance, with intercontinental comparisons". Australian Journal of Ecology. 14 (4): 473–506. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.1989.tb01457.x. Baker, Myron Charles; Baker, Ann Eileen Miller (1 April 1973). "Niche Relationships Among Six Species of Shorebirds on Their Wintering and Breeding Ranges". Ecological Monographs. 43 (2): 193–212. doi:10.2307/1942194. JSTOR 1942194. Cherel, Yves; Bocher, P; De Broyer, C; Hobson, KA (2002). "Food and feeding ecology of the sympatric thin-billed Pachyptila belcheri and Antarctic P. desolata prions at Iles Kerguelen, Southern Indian Ocean". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 228: 263–281. Bibcode:2002MEPS..228..263C. doi:10.3354/meps228263. Jenkin, Penelope M. (1957). "The Filter-Feeding and Food of Flamingoes (Phoenicopteri)". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 240 (674): 401–493. Bibcode:1957RSPTB.240..401J. doi:10.1098/rstb.1957.0004. JSTOR 92549. S2CID 84979098. Hughes, Baz; Green, Andy J. (2005). "Feeding Ecology". In Kear, Janet (ed.). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Oxford University Press. pp. 42–44. ISBN 978-0-19-861008-3. Li, Zhiheng; Clarke, Julia A. (2016). "The Craniolingual Morphology of Waterfowl (Aves, Anseriformes) and Its Relationship with Feeding Mode Revealed Through Contrast-Enhanced X-Ray Computed Tomography and 2D Morphometrics". Evolutionary Biology. 43: 12–25. doi:10.1007/s11692-015-9345-4. S2CID 17961182. Takahashi, Akinori; Kuroki, Maki; Niizuma, Yasuaki; Watanuki, Yutaka (December 1999). "Parental Food Provisioning Is Unrelated to Manipulated Offspring Food Demand in a Nocturnal Single-Provisioning Alcid, the Rhinoceros Auklet". Journal of Avian Biology. 30 (4): 486. doi:10.2307/3677021. JSTOR 3677021. Bélisle, Marc; Giroux (1 August 1995). "Predation and kleptoparasitism by migrating Parasitic Jaegers" (PDF). The Condor. 97 (3): 771–781. doi:10.2307/1369185. JSTOR 1369185. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Vickery, J. A. (May 1994). "The Kleptoparasitic Interactions between Great Frigatebirds and Masked Boobies on Henderson Island, South Pacific". The Condor. 96 (2): 331–340. doi:10.2307/1369318. JSTOR 1369318. Hiraldo, F. C.; Blanco, J. C.; Bustamante, J. (1991). "Unspecialized exploitation of small carcasses by birds". Bird Studies. 38 (3): 200–207. doi:10.1080/00063659109477089. hdl:10261/47141. Engel, Sophia Barbara (2005). Racing the wind: Water economy and energy expenditure in avian endurance flight. University of Groningen. ISBN 90-367-2378-7. Archived from the original on 5 April 2020. Retrieved 25 November 2008. Tieleman, B.I.; Williams, JB (1999). "The role of hyperthermia in the water economy of desert birds" (PDF). Physiol. Biochem. Zool. 72 (1): 87–100. doi:10.1086/316640. hdl:11370/6edc6940-c2e8-4c96-832e-0b6982dd59c1. PMID 9882607. S2CID 18920080. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Schmidt-Nielsen, Knut (1 May 1960). "The Salt-Secreting Gland of Marine Birds". Circulation. 21 (5): 955–967. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.21.5.955. PMID 14443123. S2CID 2757501. Hallager, Sara L. (1994). "Drinking methods in two species of bustards". Wilson Bull. 106 (4): 763–764. hdl:10088/4338. MacLean, Gordon L. (1 June 1983). "Water Transport by Sandgrouse". BioScience. 33 (6): 365–369. doi:10.2307/1309104. JSTOR 1309104. Eraud C; Dorie A; Jacquet A; Faivre B (2008). "The crop milk: a potential new route for carotenoid-mediated parental effects" (PDF). Journal of Avian Biology. 39 (2): 247–251. doi:10.1111/j.0908-8857.2008.04053.x. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Mario, Principato; Federica, Lisi; Iolanda, Moretta; Nada, Samra; Francesco, Puccetti (2005). "The alterations of plumage of parasitic origin". Italian Journal of Animal Science. 4 (3): 296–299. doi:10.4081/ijas.2005.296. S2CID 84770232. Revis, Hannah C.; Waller, Deborah A. (2004). "Bactericidal and fungicidal activity of ant chemicals on feather parasites: an evaluation of anting behavior as a method of self-medication in songbirds". The Auk. 121 (4): 1262–1268. doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[1262:BAFAOA]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 85677766. Clayton, Dale H.; Koop, Jennifer A.H.; Harbison, Christopher W.; Moyer, Brett R.; Bush, Sarah E. (2010). "How Birds Combat Ectoparasites". The Open Ornithology Journal. 3: 41–71. doi:10.2174/1874453201003010041. Battley, Phil F.; Piersma, T.; Dietz, M. W.; Tang, S; Dekinga, A.; Hulsman, K. (January 2000). "Empirical evidence for differential organ reductions during trans-oceanic bird flight". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 267 (1439): 191–195. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.0986. PMC 1690512. PMID 10687826. (Erratum in Proceedings of the Royal Society B 267(1461):2567.) Klaassen, Marc (1 January 1996). "Metabolic constraints on long-distance migration in birds". Journal of Experimental Biology. 199 (1): 57–64. doi:10.1242/jeb.199.1.57. PMID 9317335. "Long-distance Godwit sets new record". BirdLife International. 4 May 2007. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2007. Shaffer, Scott A.; et al. (2006). "Migratory shearwaters integrate oceanic resources across the Pacific Ocean in an endless summer". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (34): 12799–12802. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10312799S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0603715103. PMC 1568927. PMID 16908846. Croxall, John P.; Silk, J. R.; Phillips, R. A.; Afanasyev, V.; Briggs, D. R. (2005). "Global Circumnavigations: Tracking year-round ranges of nonbreeding Albatrosses". Science. 307 (5707): 249–250. Bibcode:2005Sci...307..249C. doi:10.1126/science.1106042. PMID 15653503. S2CID 28990783. Wilson, W. Herbert Jr. (1999). "Bird feeding and irruptions of northern finches:are migrations short stopped?" (PDF). North America Bird Bander. 24 (4): 113–121. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 July 2014. Nilsson, Anna L.K.; Alerstam, Thomas; Nilsson, Jan-Åke (2006). "Do partial and regular migrants differ in their responses to weather?". The Auk. 123 (2): 537–547. doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2006)123[537:DPARMD]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 84665086. Chan, Ken (2001). "Partial migration in Australian landbirds: a review". Emu. 101 (4): 281–292. doi:10.1071/MU00034. S2CID 82259620. Rabenold, Kerry N. (1985). "Variation in Altitudinal Migration, Winter Segregation, and Site Tenacity in two subspecies of Dark-eyed Juncos in the southern Appalachians" (PDF). The Auk. 102 (4): 805–819. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Collar, Nigel J. (1997). "Family Psittacidae (Parrots)". In Josep del Hoyo; Andrew Elliott; Jordi Sargatal (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 4: Sandgrouse to Cuckoos. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-22-9. Matthews, G.V.T. (1 September 1953). "Navigation in the Manx Shearwater". Journal of Experimental Biology. 30 (2): 370–396. doi:10.1242/jeb.30.3.370. Mouritsen, Henrik; Larsen, Ole Næsbye (15 November 2001). "Migrating songbirds tested in computer-controlled Emlen funnels use stellar cues for a time-independent compass". Journal of Experimental Biology. 204 (8): 3855–3865. doi:10.1242/jeb.204.22.3855. PMID 11807103. Deutschlander, Mark E.; Phillips, J. B.; Borland, S. C. (15 April 1999). "The case for light-dependent magnetic orientation in animals". Journal of Experimental Biology. 202 (8): 891–908. doi:10.1242/jeb.202.8.891. PMID 10085262. Möller, Anders Pape (1988). "Badge size in the house sparrow Passer domesticus". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 22 (5): 373–378. doi:10.1007/BF00295107. JSTOR 4600164. Thomas, Betsy Trent; Strahl (1 August 1990). "Nesting Behavior of Sunbitterns (Eurypyga helias) in Venezuela" (PDF). The Condor. 92 (3): 576–581. doi:10.2307/1368675. JSTOR 1368675. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016. Pickering, S. P. C. (2001). "Courtship behaviour of the Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans at Bird Island, South Georgia" (PDF). Marine Ornithology. 29 (1): 29–37. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Pruett-Jones, S.G.; Pruett-Jones (1 May 1990). "Sexual Selection Through Female Choice in Lawes' Parotia, A Lek-Mating Bird of Paradise". Evolution. 44 (3): 486–501. doi:10.2307/2409431. JSTOR 2409431. PMID 28567971. Genevois, F.; Bretagnolle, V. (1994). "Male Blue Petrels reveal their body mass when calling". Ethology Ecology and Evolution. 6 (3): 377–383. doi:10.1080/08927014.1994.9522988. Archived from the original on 24 December 2007. Jouventin, Pierre; Aubin, T; Lengagne, T (June 1999). "Finding a parent in a king penguin colony: the acoustic system of individual recognition". Animal Behaviour. 57 (6): 1175–1183. doi:10.1006/anbe.1999.1086. PMID 10373249. S2CID 45578269. Templeton, Christopher N.; Greene, E; Davis, K (2005). "Allometry of Alarm Calls: Black-Capped Chickadees Encode Information About Predator Size". Science. 308 (5730): 1934–1937. Bibcode:2005Sci...308.1934T. doi:10.1126/science.1108841. PMID 15976305. S2CID 42276496. Miskelly, C. M. (July 1987). "The identity of the hakawai". Notornis. 34 (2): 95–116. Dodenhoff, Danielle J.; Stark, Robert D.; Johnson, Eric V. (2001). "Do woodpecker drums encode information for species recognition?". The Condor. 103 (1): 143. doi:10.1650/0010-5422(2001)103[0143:DWDEIF]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0010-5422. S2CID 31878910. Murphy, Stephen; Legge, Sarah; Heinsohn, Robert (2003). "The breeding biology of palm cockatoos (Probosciger aterrimus): a case of a slow life history". Journal of Zoology. 261 (4): 327–339. doi:10.1017/S0952836903004175. Sekercioglu, Cagan Hakki (2006). "Foreword". In Josep del Hoyo; Andrew Elliott; David Christie (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 11: Old World Flycatchers to Old World Warblers. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. p. 48. ISBN 84-96553-06-X. Terborgh, John (2005). "Mixed flocks and polyspecific associations: Costs and benefits of mixed groups to birds and monkeys". American Journal of Primatology. 21 (2): 87–100. doi:10.1002/ajp.1350210203. PMID 31963979. S2CID 83826161. Hutto, Richard L. (January 1988). "Foraging Behavior Patterns Suggest a Possible Cost Associated with Participation in Mixed-Species Bird Flocks". Oikos. 51 (1): 79–83. doi:10.2307/3565809. JSTOR 3565809. Au, David W.K.; Pitman (1 August 1986). "Seabird interactions with Dolphins and Tuna in the Eastern Tropical Pacific" (PDF). The Condor. 88 (3): 304–317. doi:10.2307/1368877. JSTOR 1368877. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Anne, O.; Rasa, E. (June 1983). "Dwarf mongoose and hornbill mutualism in the Taru desert, Kenya". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 12 (3): 181–190. doi:10.1007/BF00290770. S2CID 22367357. Gauthier-Clerc, Michael; Tamisier, Alain; Cézilly, Frank (2000). "Sleep-Vigilance Trade-off in Gadwall during the Winter Period" (PDF). The Condor. 102 (2): 307–313. doi:10.1650/0010-5422(2000)102[0307:SVTOIG]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR 1369642. S2CID 15957324. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 December 2004. Bäckman, Johan; A (1 April 2002). "Harmonic oscillatory orientation relative to the wind in nocturnal roosting flights of the swift Apus apus". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 205 (7): 905–910. doi:10.1242/jeb.205.7.905. PMID 11916987. Rattenborg, Niels C. (2006). "Do birds sleep in flight?". Die Naturwissenschaften. 93 (9): 413–425. Bibcode:2006NW.....93..413R. doi:10.1007/s00114-006-0120-3. PMID 16688436. S2CID 1736369. Milius, S. (6 February 1999). "Half-asleep birds choose which half dozes". Science News Online. 155 (6): 86. doi:10.2307/4011301. JSTOR 4011301. Beauchamp, Guy (1999). "The evolution of communal roosting in birds: origin and secondary losses". Behavioral Ecology. 10 (6): 675–687. doi:10.1093/beheco/10.6.675. Buttemer, William A. (1985). "Energy relations of winter roost-site utilization by American goldfinches (Carduelis tristis)" (PDF). Oecologia. 68 (1): 126–132. Bibcode:1985Oecol..68..126B. doi:10.1007/BF00379484. hdl:2027.42/47760. PMID 28310921. S2CID 17355506. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Palmer, Meredith S.; Packer, Craig (2018). "Giraffe bed and breakfast: Camera traps reveal Tanzanian yellow‐billed oxpeckers roosting on their large mammalian hosts". African Journal of Ecology. 56 (4): 882–884. doi:10.1111/aje.12505. ISSN 0141-6707. Buckley, F.G.; Buckley (1 January 1968). "Upside-down Resting by Young Green-Rumped Parrotlets (Forpus passerinus)". The Condor. 70 (1): 89. doi:10.2307/1366517. JSTOR 1366517. Carpenter, F. Lynn (1974). "Torpor in an Andean Hummingbird: Its Ecological Significance". Science. 183 (4124): 545–547. Bibcode:1974Sci...183..545C. doi:10.1126/science.183.4124.545. PMID 17773043. S2CID 42021321. McKechnie, Andrew E.; Ashdown, Robert A.M.; Christian, Murray B.; Brigham, R. Mark (2007). "Torpor in an African caprimulgid, the freckled nightjar Caprimulgus tristigma". Journal of Avian Biology. 38 (3): 261–266. doi:10.1111/j.2007.0908-8857.04116.x. Gill, Frank B.; Prum, Richard O. (2019). Ornithology (4 ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. pp. 390–396. Cabello-Vergel, Julián; Soriano-Redondo, Andrea; Villegas, Auxiliadora; Masero, José A.; Guzmán, Juan M. Sánchez; Gutiérrez, Jorge S. (2021). "Urohidrosis as an overlooked cooling mechanism in long-legged birds". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 20018. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1120018C. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-99296-8. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 8501033. PMID 34625581. Frith, C. B. (1981). "Displays of Count Raggi's Bird-of-Paradise Paradisaea raggiana and congeneric species". Emu. 81 (4): 193–201. doi:10.1071/MU9810193. Freed, Leonard A. (1987). "The Long-Term Pair Bond of Tropical House Wrens: Advantage or Constraint?". The American Naturalist. 130 (4): 507–525. doi:10.1086/284728. S2CID 84735736. Gowaty, Patricia A. (1983). "Male Parental Care and Apparent Monogamy among Eastern Bluebirds (Sialia sialis)". The American Naturalist. 121 (2): 149–160. doi:10.1086/284047. S2CID 84258620. Westneat, David F.; Stewart, Ian R.K. (2003). "Extra-pair paternity in birds: Causes, correlates, and conflict". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 34: 365–396. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132439. Gowaty, Patricia A.; Buschhaus, Nancy (1998). "Ultimate causation of aggressive and forced copulation in birds: Female resistance, the CODE hypothesis, and social monogamy". American Zoologist. 38 (1): 207–225. doi:10.1093/icb/38.1.207. Sheldon, B (1994). "Male Phenotype, Fertility, and the Pursuit of Extra-Pair Copulations by Female Birds". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 257 (1348): 25–30. Bibcode:1994RSPSB.257...25S. doi:10.1098/rspb.1994.0089. S2CID 85745432. Wei, G; Zuo-Hua, Yin; Fu-Min, Lei (2005). "Copulations and mate guarding of the Chinese Egret". Waterbirds. 28 (4): 527–530. doi:10.1675/1524-4695(2005)28[527:CAMGOT]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 86336632. Owens, Ian P. F.; Bennett, Peter M. (1997). "Variation in mating system among birds: ecological basis revealed by hierarchical comparative analysis of mate desertion". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences. 264 (1385): 1103–1110. doi:10.1098/rspb.1997.0152. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 1688567. Petrie, Marion; Kempenaers, Bart (1998). "Extra-pair paternity in birds: explaining variation between species and populations". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 13 (2): 52–58. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(97)01232-9. PMID 21238200. Short, Lester L. (1993). Birds of the World and their Behavior. New York: Henry Holt and Co. ISBN 0-8050-1952-9. Burton, R (1985). Bird Behavior. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. ISBN 0-394-53957-5. Schamel, D; Tracy, Diane M.; Lank, David B.; Westneat, David F. (2004). "Mate guarding, copulation strategies and paternity in the sex-role reversed, socially polyandrous red-necked phalarope Phalaropus lobatus". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 57 (2): 110–118. doi:10.1007/s00265-004-0825-2. S2CID 26038182. Attenborough, David (1998). The Life of Birds. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01633-X. Bagemihl, Bruce (1999). Biological exuberance: Animal homosexuality and natural diversity. New York: St. Martin's. pp. 479–655. MacFarlane, Geoff R.; Blomberg, Simon P.; Kaplan, Gisela; Rogers, Lesley J. (1 January 2007). "Same-sex sexual behavior in birds: expression is related to social mating system and state of development at hatching". Behavioral Ecology. 18 (1): 21–33. doi:10.1093/beheco/arl065. hdl:10.1093/beheco/arl065. ISSN 1045-2249. Kokko, H; Harris, M; Wanless, S (2004). "Competition for breeding sites and site-dependent population regulation in a highly colonial seabird, the common guillemot Uria aalge". Journal of Animal Ecology. 73 (2): 367–376. doi:10.1111/j.0021-8790.2004.00813.x. Booker, L; Booker, M (1991). "Why Are Cuckoos Host Specific?". Oikos. 57 (3): 301–309. doi:10.2307/3565958. JSTOR 3565958. Hansell, M (2000). Bird Nests and Construction Behaviour. University of Cambridge Press. ISBN 0-521-46038-7. Lafuma, L.; Lambrechts, M.; Raymond, M. (2001). "Aromatic plants in bird nests as a protection against blood-sucking flying insects?". Behavioural Processes. 56 (2): 113–120. doi:10.1016/S0376-6357(01)00191-7. PMID 11672937. S2CID 43254694. Collias, Nicholas E.; Collias, Elsie C. (1984). Nest building and bird behavior. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 16–17, 26. ISBN 0691083584. Warham, J. (1990). The Petrels: Their Ecology and Breeding Systems. London: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-735420-4. Jones, DN; Dekker, René WRJ; Roselaar, Cees S (1995). "The Megapodes". Bird Families of the World 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854651-3. "AnAge: The animal ageing and longevity database". Human Ageing and Genomics Resources. Retrieved 26 September 2014. "Animal diversity web". University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology. Retrieved 26 September 2014. Urfi, A. J. (2011). The Painted Stork: Ecology and Conservation. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-4419-8468-5. Khanna, D. R. (2005). Biology of Birds. Discovery Publishing House. p. 109. ISBN 978-81-7141-933-3. Scott, Lynnette (2008). Wildlife Rehabilitation. National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-931439-23-7. Elliot, A (1994). "Family Megapodiidae (Megapodes)". In del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J. (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 2: New World Vultures to Guineafowl. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-15-6. Metz, V. G.; Schreiber, E. A. (2002). "Great Frigatebird (Fregata minor)". In Poole, A.; Gill, F. (eds.). The Birds of North America, No 681. Philadelphia: The Birds of North America Inc. Young, Euan (1994). Skua and Penguin. Predator and Prey. Cambridge University Press. p. 453. Ekman, J. (2006). "Family living amongst birds". Journal of Avian Biology. 37 (4): 289–298. doi:10.1111/j.2006.0908-8857.03666.x. Cockburn A (1996). "Why do so many Australian birds cooperate? Social evolution in the Corvida". In Floyd R, Sheppard A, de Barro P (eds.). Frontiers in Population Ecology. Melbourne: CSIRO. pp. 21–42. Cockburn, Andrew (2006). "Prevalence of different modes of parental care in birds". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 273 (1592): 1375–1383. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3458. PMC 1560291. PMID 16777726. Gaston, AJ (1994). "Ancient Murrelet (Synthliboramphus antiquus)". In Poole, A.; Gill, F. (eds.). The Birds of North America, No. 132. Philadelphia & Washington, D.C.: The Academy of Natural Sciences & The American Ornithologists' Union. Schaefer, H. C.; Eshiamwata, G. W.; Munyekenye, F. B.; Böhning-Gaese, K. (2004). "Life-history of two African Sylvia warblers: low annual fecundity and long post-fledging care". Ibis. 146 (3): 427–437. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00276.x. Alonso, J. C.; Bautista, L. M.; Alonso, J. A. (2004). "Family-based territoriality vs flocking in wintering common cranes Grus grus". Journal of Avian Biology. 35 (5): 434–444. doi:10.1111/j.0908-8857.2004.03290.x. hdl:10261/43767. Davies, N. (2000). Cuckoos, Cowbirds and other Cheats. London: T. & A. D. Poyser. ISBN 0-85661-135-2. Sorenson, M. (1997). "Effects of intra- and interspecific brood parasitism on a precocial host, the canvasback, Aythya valisineria". Behavioral Ecology. 8 (2): 153–161. doi:10.1093/beheco/8.2.153. Spottiswoode, C. N.; Colebrook-Robjent, J. F. R. (2007). "Egg puncturing by the brood parasitic Greater Honeyguide and potential host counteradaptations". Behavioral Ecology. 18 (4): 792–799. doi:10.1093/beheco/arm025. hdl:10.1093/beheco/arm025. Edwards, DB (2012). "Immune investment is explained by sexual selection and pace-of-life, but not longevity in parrots (Psittaciformes)". PLOS ONE. 7 (12): e53066. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...753066E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0053066. PMC 3531452. PMID 23300862. Doutrelant, C; Grégoire, A; Midamegbe, A; Lambrechts, M; Perret, P (January 2012). "Female plumage coloration is sensitive to the cost of reproduction. An experiment in blue tits". Journal of Animal Ecology. 81 (1): 87–96. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2011.01889.x. PMID 21819397. Hemmings NL, Slate J, Birkhead TR (2012). "Inbreeding causes early death in a passerine bird". Nat Commun. 3: 863. Bibcode:2012NatCo...3..863H. doi:10.1038/ncomms1870. PMID 22643890. Hemmings, N. L.; Slate, J.; Birkhead, T. R. (29 May 2012). "Inbreeding causes early death in a passerine bird". Nature Communications. 3 (1): 863. Bibcode:2012NatCo...3..863H. doi:10.1038/ncomms1870. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 22643890. Keller LF, Grant PR, Grant BR, Petren K (2002). "Environmental conditions affect the magnitude of inbreeding depression in survival of Darwin's finches". Evolution. 56 (6): 1229–1239. doi:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb01434.x. PMID 12144022. S2CID 16206523. Kingma, SA; Hall, ML; Peters, A (2013). "Breeding synchronization facilitates extrapair mating for inbreeding avoidance". Behavioral Ecology. 24 (6): 1390–1397. doi:10.1093/beheco/art078. hdl:10.1093/beheco/art078. Szulkin M, Sheldon BC (2008). "Dispersal as a means of inbreeding avoidance in a wild bird population". Proc. Biol. Sci. 275 (1635): 703–711. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.0989. PMC 2596843. PMID 18211876. Nelson-Flower MJ, Hockey PA, O'Ryan C, Ridley AR (2012). "Inbreeding avoidance mechanisms: dispersal dynamics in cooperatively breeding southern pied babblers". J Anim Ecol. 81 (4): 876–883. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2012.01983.x. PMID 22471769. Riehl C, Stern CA (2015). "How cooperatively breeding birds identify relatives and avoid incest: New insights into dispersal and kin recognition". BioEssays. 37 (12): 1303–1308. doi:10.1002/bies.201500120. PMID 26577076. S2CID 205476732. Charlesworth D, Willis JH (2009). "The genetics of inbreeding depression". Nat. Rev. Genet. 10 (11): 783–796. doi:10.1038/nrg2664. PMID 19834483. S2CID 771357. Bernstein H, Hopf FA, Michod RE (1987). "The Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex". Molecular Genetics of Development. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24. pp. 323–370. doi:10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60012-7. ISBN 9780120176243. PMID 3324702. Michod, R.E. (1994). Eros and Evolution: A Natural Philosophy of Sex. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0201442328. Gong, Lixin; Shi, Biye; Wu, Hui; Feng, Jiang; Jiang, Tinglei (2021). "Who's for dinner? Bird prey diversity and choice in the great evening bat, Ia io". Ecology and Evolution. 11 (13): 8400–8409. doi:10.1002/ece3.7667. ISSN 2045-7758. PMC 8258197. PMID 34257905. Križanauskienė, Asta; Hellgren, Olof; Kosarev, Vladislav; Sokolov, Leonid; Bensch, Staffan; Valkiūnas, Gediminas (2006). "Variation in host specificty between species of avian hemosporidian parasites: evidence from parasite morphology and cytochrome b gene sequences". Journal of Parasitology. 92 (6): 1319–1324. doi:10.1645/GE-873R.1. ISSN 0022-3395. PMID 17304814. S2CID 27746219. Clout, M; Hay, J (1989). "The importance of birds as browsers, pollinators and seed dispersers in New Zealand forests" (PDF). New Zealand Journal of Ecology. 12: 27–33. Stiles, F. Gary (1981). "Geographical Aspects of Bird-Flower Coevolution, with Particular Reference to Central America". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 68 (2): 323–351. doi:10.2307/2398801. JSTOR 2398801. S2CID 87692272. Temeles, E.; Linhart, Y.; Masonjones, M.; Masonjones, H. (2002). "The Role of Flower Width in Hummingbird Bill Length–Flower Length Relationships" (PDF). Biotropica. 34 (1): 68–80. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2002.tb00243.x. S2CID 16315843. Bond, William J.; Lee, William G.; Craine, Joseph M. (2004). "Plant structural defences against browsing birds: a legacy of New Zealand's extinct moas". Oikos. 104 (3): 500–508. doi:10.1111/j.0030-1299.2004.12720.x. Berner, Lewis; Hicks, Ellis A. (June 1959). "Checklist and Bibliography on the Occurrence of Insects in Birds Nests". The Florida Entomologist. 42 (2): 92. doi:10.2307/3492142. ISSN 0015-4040. JSTOR 3492142. Boyes, Douglas H.; Lewis, Owen T. (2019). "Ecology of Lepidoptera associated with bird nests in mid-Wales, UK". Ecological Entomology. 44 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1111/een.12669. ISSN 1365-2311. S2CID 91557693. Wainright, S.; Haney, J.; Kerr, C.; Golovkin, A.; Flint, M. (1998). "Utilization of nitrogen derived from seabird guano by terrestrial and marine plants at St. Paul, Pribilof Islands, Bering Sea, Alaska". Marine Biology. 131 (1): 63–71. doi:10.1007/s002270050297. S2CID 83734364. Bosman, A.; Hockey, A. (1986). "Seabird guano as a determinant of rocky intertidal community structure". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 32: 247–257. Bibcode:1986MEPS...32..247B. doi:10.3354/meps032247. Sutherland, William J.; Newton, Ian; Green, Rhys E. (2004). Bird Ecology and Conservation. A Handbook of Techniques. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198520859. Bonney, Rick; Rohrbaugh, Ronald Jr. (2004). Handbook of Bird Biology (Second ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-938027-62-X. Dean, W. R. J.; Siegfried, W. ROY; MacDonald, I. A. W. (1990). "The Fallacy, Fact, and Fate of Guiding Behavior in the Greater Honeyguide". Conservation Biology. 4: 99–101. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.1990.tb00272.x. Singer, R.; Yom-Tov, Y. (1988). "The Breeding Biology of the House Sparrow Passer domesticus in Israel". Ornis Scandinavica. 19 (2): 139–144. doi:10.2307/3676463. JSTOR 3676463. Dolbeer, Richard (1990). "Ornithology and integrated pest management: Red-winged blackbirds Agleaius phoeniceus and corn". Ibis. 132 (2): 309–322. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1990.tb01048.x. Dolbeer, R.; Belant, J.; Sillings, J. (1993). "Shooting Gulls Reduces Strikes with Aircraft at John F. Kennedy International Airport". Wildlife Society Bulletin. 21: 442–450. Bryce, Emma (16 March 2016). "Will Wind Turbines Ever Be Safe for Birds?". Audubon. US: National Audubon Society. Retrieved 19 March 2017. Zimmer, Carl (19 September 2019). "Birds Are Vanishing From North America". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 September 2019. Reed, K. D.; Meece, J. K.; Henkel, J. S.; Shukla, S. K. (2003). "Birds, Migration and Emerging Zoonoses: West Nile Virus, Lyme Disease, Influenza A and Enteropathogens". Clinical Medicine & Research. 1 (1): 5–12. doi:10.3121/cmr.1.1.5. PMC 1069015. PMID 15931279. Brown, Lester (2005). "3: Moving Up the Food Chain Efficiently.". Outgrowing the Earth: The Food Security Challenge in an Age of Falling Water Tables and Rising Temperatures. earthscan. ISBN 978-1-84407-185-2. "Poultry species: Gateway to poultry production and products". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAO. Retrieved 27 January 2023. Hamilton, S. (2000). "How precise and accurate are data obtained using. an infra-red scope on burrow-nesting sooty shearwaters Puffinus griseus?" (PDF). Marine Ornithology. 28 (1): 1–6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Keane, Aidan; Brooke, M. de L.; McGowan, P. J. K. (2005). "Correlates of extinction risk and hunting pressure in gamebirds (Galliformes)". Biological Conservation. 126 (2): 216–233. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.05.011. "The Guano War of 1865–1866". World History at KMLA. Retrieved 18 December 2007. Cooney, R.; Jepson, P. (2006). "The international wild bird trade: what's wrong with blanket bans?". Oryx. 40 (1): 18–23. doi:10.1017/S0030605306000056. Manzi, M.; Coomes, O. T. (2002). "Cormorant fishing in Southwestern China: a Traditional Fishery under Siege. (Geographical Field Note)". Geographical Review. 92 (4): 597–603. doi:10.2307/4140937. JSTOR 4140937. Pullis La Rouche, G. (2006). "Birding in the United States: a demographic and economic analysis". In Boere, G. C.; Galbraith, C. A.; Stroud, D. A. (eds.). Waterbirds around the world (PDF). Edinburgh: The Stationery Office. pp. 841–846. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2011. Chamberlain, D. E.; Vickery, J. A.; Glue, D. E.; Robinson, R. A.; Conway, G. J.; Woodburn, R. J. W.; Cannon, A. R. (2005). "Annual and seasonal trends in the use of garden feeders by birds in winter". Ibis. 147 (3): 563–575. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919x.2005.00430.x. Routledge, S.; Routledge, K. (1917). "The Bird Cult of Easter Island". Folklore. 28 (4): 337–355. doi:10.1080/0015587X.1917.9719006. S2CID 4216509. Ingersoll, Ernest (1923). "Birds in legend, fable and folklore". Longmans, Green and Co. p. 214 – via Wayback Machine. Hauser, A. J. (1985). "Jonah: In Pursuit of the Dove". Journal of Biblical Literature. 104 (1): 21–37. doi:10.2307/3260591. JSTOR 3260591. Thankappan Nair, P. (1974). "The Peacock Cult in Asia". Asian Folklore Studies. 33 (2): 93–170. doi:10.2307/1177550. JSTOR 1177550. Botterweck, G. Johannes; Ringgren, Helmer (1990). Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Vol. VI. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. pp. 35–36. ISBN 0-8028-2330-0. Lewis, Sian; Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2018). The Culture of Animals in Antiquity: A Sourcebook with Commentaries. New York City, New York and London, England: Routledge. p. 335. ISBN 978-1-315-20160-3. Resig, Dorothy D. (9 February 2013). "The Enduring Symbolism of Doves, From Ancient Icon to Biblical Mainstay". BAR Magazine Bib-arch.org. Archived from the original on 31 January 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2013. Cyrino, Monica S. (2010). Aphrodite. Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World. New York City, New York and London, England: Routledge. pp. 120–123. ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6. Tinkle, Theresa (1996). Medieval Venuses and Cupids: Sexuality, Hermeneutics, and English Poetry. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0804725156. Simon, Erika (1983). Festivals of Attica: An Archaeological Companion. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-09184-8. Deacy, Susan; Villing, Alexandra (2001). Athena in the Classical World. Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV. ISBN 978-9004121423. Deacy, Susan (2008). Athena. London and New York City: Routledge. pp. 34–37, 74–75. ISBN 978-0-415-30066-7. Nilsson, Martin Persson (1950). The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion and Its Survival in Greek Religion (second ed.). New York City, New York: Biblo & Tannen. pp. 491–496. ISBN 0-8196-0273-6. Smith, S. (2011). "Generative landscapes: the step mountain motif in Tiwanaku iconography" (PDF). Ancient America. 12: 1–69. Archived from the original (Automatic PDF download) on 6 January 2019. Retrieved 24 April 2014. Meighan, C.W. (1966). "Prehistoric Rock Paintings in Baja California". American Antiquity. 31 (3): 372–392. doi:10.2307/2694739. JSTOR 2694739. S2CID 163584284. Conard, Nicholas J. (2003). "Palaeolithic ivory sculptures from southwestern Germany and the origins of figurative art". Nature. 426 (6968): 830–832. Bibcode:2003Natur.426..830C. doi:10.1038/nature02186. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 14685236. S2CID 4349167. Tennyson, A; Martinson, P (2006). Extinct Birds of New Zealand. Wellington: Te Papa Press. ISBN 978-0-909010-21-8. Clarke, CP (1908). "A Pedestal of the Platform of the Peacock Throne". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. 3 (10): 182–183. doi:10.2307/3252550. JSTOR 3252550. Boime, Albert (1999). "John James Audubon: a birdwatcher's fanciful flights". Art History. 22 (5): 728–755. doi:10.1111/1467-8365.00184. Chandler, A. (1934). "The Nightingale in Greek and Latin Poetry". The Classical Journal. 30 (2): 78–84. JSTOR 3289944. Lasky, E. D. (March 1992). "A Modern Day Albatross: The Valdez and Some of Life's Other Spills". The English Journal. 81 (3): 44–46. doi:10.2307/820195. JSTOR 820195. Carson, A. (1998). "Vulture Investors, Predators of the 90s: An Ethical Examination". Journal of Business Ethics. 17 (5): 543–555. doi:10.1023/A:1017974505642. S2CID 156972909. "US Warplane Aircraft Names" (PDF). uswarpalnes.net. Retrieved 24 March 2023.[unreliable source?] Enriquez, P. L.; Mikkola, H. (1997). "Comparative study of general public owl knowledge in Costa Rica, Central America and Malawi, Africa". In Duncan, J. R.; Johnson, D. H.; Nicholls, T. H. (eds.). Biology and conservation of owls of the Northern Hemisphere. General Technical Report NC-190. St. Paul, Minnesota: USDA Forest Service. pp. 160–166. Lewis, DP (2005). "Owls in Mythology and Culture". Owlpages.com. Retrieved 15 September 2007. Dupree, N. (1974). "An Interpretation of the Role of the Hoopoe in Afghan Folklore and Magic". Folklore. 85 (3): 173–193. doi:10.1080/0015587X.1974.9716553. JSTOR 1260073. Fox-Davies, A. C. (1985). A Complete Guide to Heraldry. Bloomsbury. "Flag description - the World Factbook". "List of National Birds of All Countries". Head, Matthew (1997). "Birdsong and the Origins of Music". Journal of the Royal Musical Association. 122 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1093/jrma/122.1.1. Clark, Suzannah (2001). Music Theory and Natural Order from the Renaissance to the Early Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77191-9. Reich, Ronni (15 October 2010). "NJIT professor finds nothing cuckoo in serenading our feathered friends". Star Ledger. Retrieved 19 June 2011. Taylor, Hollis (21 March 2011). "Composers' Appropriation of Pied Butcherbird Song: Henry Tate's "undersong of Australia" Comes of Age". Journal of Music Research Online. 2. Davin, Laurent; Tejero, José-Miguel; Simmons, Tal; Shaham, Dana; Borvon, Aurélia; Tourny, Olivier; Bridault, Anne; Rabinovich, Rivka; Sindel, Marion; Khalaily, Hamudi; Valla, François (2023). "Bone aerophones from Eynan-Mallaha (Israel) indicate imitation of raptor calls by the last hunter-gatherers in the Levant". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 8709. Bibcode:2023NatSR..13.8709D. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-35700-9. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 10256695. PMID 37296190. Fuller, Errol (2000). Extinct Birds (2nd ed.). Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850837-9. Steadman, D. (2006). Extinction and Biogeography in Tropical Pacific Birds. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-77142-7. "BirdLife International announces more Critically Endangered birds than ever before". BirdLife International. 14 May 2009. Archived from the original on 17 June 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2009. Kinver, Mark (13 May 2009). "Birds at risk reach record high". BBC News Online. Retrieved 15 May 2009. Norris, K; Pain, D, eds. (2002). Conserving Bird Biodiversity: General Principles and their Application. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78949-3. Brothers, N. P. (1991). "Albatross mortality and associated bait loss in the Japanese longline fishery in the southern ocean". Biological Conservation. 55 (3): 255–268. doi:10.1016/0006-3207(91)90031-4. Wurster, D.; Wurster, C.; Strickland, W. (July 1965). "Bird Mortality Following DDT Spray for Dutch Elm Disease". Ecology. 46 (4): 488–499. doi:10.2307/1934880. JSTOR 1934880.; Wurster, C.F.; Wurster, D.H.; Strickland, W.N. (1965). "Bird Mortality after Spraying for Dutch Elm Disease with DDT". Science. 148 (3666): 90–91. Bibcode:1965Sci...148...90W. doi:10.1126/science.148.3666.90. PMID 14258730. S2CID 26320497. Blackburn, T.; Cassey, P.; Duncan, R.; Evans, K.; Gaston, K. (24 September 2004). "Avian Extinction and Mammalian Introductions on Oceanic Islands". Science. 305 (5692): 1955–1958. Bibcode:2004Sci...305.1955B. doi:10.1126/science.1101617. PMID 15448269. S2CID 31211118. Butchart, S.; Stattersfield, A.; Collar, N (2006). "How many bird extinctions have we prevented?". Oryx. 40 (3): 266–79. doi:10.1017/S0030605306000950. Further reading Library resources about Bird Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries All the Birds of the World, Lynx Edicions, 2020. Del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World (17-volume encyclopaedia), Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, 1992–2010. (Vol. 1: Ostrich to Ducks: ISBN 978-84-87334-10-8, etc.). Lederer, Roger; Carol Burr (2014). Latein für Vogelbeobachter: über 3000 ornithologische Begriffe erklärt und erforscht, aus dem Englischen übersetzt von Susanne Kuhlmannn-Krieg, Verlag DuMont, Köln, ISBN 978-3-8321-9491-8. National Geographic Field Guide to Birds of North America, National Geographic, 7th edition, 2017. ISBN 9781426218354 National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds: Eastern Region, National Audubon Society, Knopf. National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds: Western Region, National Audubon Society, Knopf. Svensson, Lars (2010). Birds of Europe, Princeton University Press, second edition. ISBN 9780691143927 Svensson, Lars (2010). Collins Bird Guide: The Most Complete Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe, Collins, 2nd edition. ISBN 978-0007268146 External links Listen to this article (4 minutes) Duration: 3 minutes and 48 seconds.3:48Spoken Wikipedia icon This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 5 January 2008, and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Bird at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Taxa from Wikispecies The Wikibook Dichotomous Key has a page on the topic of: Aves Birdlife International – Dedicated to bird conservation worldwide; has a database with about 250,000 records on endangered bird species. Bird biogeography Birds and Science from the National Audubon Society Cornell Lab of Ornithology "Bird" at the Encyclopedia of Life Edit this at Wikidata Essays on bird biology North American Birds for Kids Archived 9 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine Ornithology Sora – Searchable online research archive; Archives of the following ornithological journals The Auk, Condor, Journal of Field Ornithology', North American Bird Bander, Studies in Avian Biology, Pacific Coast Avifauna, and the Wilson Bulletin. The Internet Bird Collection – A free library of videos of the world's birds The Institute for Bird Populations, California List of field guides to birds, from the International Field Guides database RSPB bird identifier Archived 5 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine – Interactive identification of all UK birds Are Birds Really Dinosaurs? — University of California Museum of Paleontology. vte Birds (class: Aves) Outline Anatomy BeakBrainCrop milkDactylyEggsFeathersFlightPreen glandPlumageVision Behaviour SingingIntelligenceMigrationForagingSexual selectionLek matingSeabird breedingIncubationBrood parasitesNestingHybrids Evolution Origin of birds TheropodadinosaursOrigin of flightEvolution of birdsDarwin's finchesSeabirds Fossil birds ArchaeopteryxOmnivoropterygiformesJeholornithidaeConfuciusornithiformesEnantiornithesChaoyangiformesPatagopterygiformesAmbiortiformesSonglingornithiformesHongshanornithidaeGansuiformesIchthyornithiformesHesperornithesLithornithiformesDinornithiformesAepyornithiformesGastornithiformes Human interaction RingingOrnithologyOrnithomancyBird collectionsBirdwatching big yearBird feedingConservationAvicultureWaterfowl huntingCockfightingPigeon racingFalconryPheasantryImpingEgg collecting Lists Families and ordersGeneraGlossary of bird termsList by populationLists by regionExtinct species since 1500Late Quaternary prehistoric birdsNotable birds individualsfictional Neornithes Palaeognathae Struthioniformes (ostriches)Rheiformes (rheas)Tinamiformes (tinamous)Apterygiformes (kiwis)Casuariiformes (emus and cassowaries) N e o g n a t h a e G a l l o a n s e r a e (fowls) Anseriformes (waterfowls) Anatidae (ducks) Anatinae AythyiniMerginiOxyuriniAnserinae swanstrue geeseDendrocygninaeStictonettinaeTadorninae Anhimidae AnhimaChauna Anseranatidae Anseranas Galliformes (landfowls- gamebirds) Cracidae CracinaeOreophasinaePenelopinae Megapodidae AepypodiusAlecturaEulipoaLeipoaMacrocephalonMegapodiusTalegalla Numididae AcrylliumAgelastesGutteraNumida Odontophoridae CallipeplaColinusCyrtonyxDactylortyxDendrortyxOdontophorusOreortyxPhilortyxRhynchortyx Phasianidae Meleagridinae (turkeys)PerdicinaePhasianinae (pheasants and relatives)Tetraoninae Neoaves Columbea Columbimorphae Columbiformes (doves and pigeons)Mesitornithiformes (mesites)Pterocliformes (sandgrouse) Mirandornithes Phoenicopteriformes (flamingos)Podicipediformes (grebes) Passerea Otidimorphae Cuculiformes (cuckoos)Musophagiformes (turacos)Otidiformes (bustards) Strisores Caprimulgiformes (nightjars and relatives)SteatornithiformesPodargiformesApodiformes (swifts and hummingbirds) Opisthocomiformes Opisthocomiformes (hoatzin) Cursorimorphae Charadriiformes (gulls and relatives)Gruiformes (cranes and relatives) Phaethontimorphae Phaethontiformes (tropicbirds)Eurypygiformes (kagu and sunbittern) Aequornithes Gaviiformes (loons or divers)Sphenisciformes (penguins)Procellariiformes (albatrosses and petrels)Ciconiiformes (storks)Suliformes (cormorants and relatives)Pelecaniformes (pelicans and relatives) Australaves Cariamiformes (seriemas and relatives)Falconiformes (falcons and relatives)Psittaciformes (parrots)Passeriformes (perching birds) Afroaves Cathartiformes (New World vultures and condors)Accipitriformes (eagles and hawks)Strigiformes (owls)Coliiformes (mousebirds)Trogoniformes (trogons and quetzals)Leptosomiformes (cuckoo-roller)Bucerotiformes (hornbills and hoopoes)Coraciiformes (kingfishers and rollers)Piciformes (woodpeckers and relatives) Category Commons Portal WikiProject vte Extant chordate classes Kingdom Animalia(unranked) BilateriaSuperphylum Deuterostomia Cephalochordata Leptocardii (lancelets) Olfactores Tunicata (Urochordata) Appendicularia (larvaceans)Ascidiacea (sea squirts)Thaliacea (pyrosomes, salps, doliolids) Vertebrata Cyclostomata Myxini (hagfish)Hyperoartia (lampreys) Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates) Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish: sharks, rays, chimaeras) Euteleostomi (bony vertebrates) Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish) Actinistia (coelacanths)¹ Rhipidistia Dipnoi (lungfish)¹ Tetrapoda Lissamphibia (modern amphibians: frogs, salamanders, caecilians) Amniota Mammalia (mammals) Sauria Lepidosauria Rhynchocephalia (tuatara)²Squamata (scaled reptiles)² Archelosauria Testudines (turtles)² Archosauria Crocodilia (crocodilians)²Aves (birds) ¹subclasses of Sarcopterygii²orders of class Reptilia (reptiles)italics denote paraphyletic groups vte Maniraptora Kingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ChordataClade: DinosauriaClade: TheropodaClade: Maniraptoriformes Avemetatarsalia see Avemetatarsalia Theropoda see Theropoda Maniraptora see below↓ Maniraptora Maniraptora †Elopteryx?†Fukuivenator?†Kakuru?†Migmanychion†Yaverlandia? †Alvarezsauroidea Aorun?BannykusHaplocheirusShishugounykusTugulusaurus?XiyunykusPatagonykinae? Alvarezsauridae Achillesaurus?AlnashetriAlvarezsaurusBradycnemeHeptasteornis Patagonykinae? BonapartenykusPatagonykus Parvicursorinae DzharaonyxJaculinykusKhulsanurusKol?NemegtonykusOndogurvelParvicursorQiupanykusTrierarchuncus Ceratonykini AlbinykusCeratonykusXixianykus Mononykini AlbertonykusLinhenykusMononykusShuvuuia †Therizinosauria Eshanosaurus?FalcariusFukuivenator?JianchangosaurusLingyuanosaurus Therizinosauroidea AlxasaurusBeipiaosaurusEnigmosaurusMartharaptorSuzhousaurus Therizinosauridae ErliansaurusErlikosaurusNanshiungosaurusNeimongosaurusNothronychusParalitherizinosaurusSegnosaurusTherizinosaurus Pennaraptora see below↓ Patagonykus puertai Mononykus olecranus Therizinosaurus cheloniformis Pennaraptora †Oviraptorosauria IncisivosaurusNingyuansaurusProtarchaeopteryxScansoriopterygidae? Caudipteridae CaudipteryxSimilicaudipteryxXingtianosaurus Caenagnathoidea AvimimusKol? Caenagnathidae AnomalipesBeibeilongChirostenotesGigantoraptorLeptorhynchosHagryphusMicrovenatorNomingia?Ojoraptorsaurus Elmisaurinae CitipesElmisaurus Caenagnathinae AnzuApatoraptorCaenagnathasiaCaenagnathusEpichirostenotes Oviraptoridae LuoyanggiaNankangiaNomingia?TongtianlongYulong Oviraptorinae CitipatiCorythoraptor?Huanansaurus?OviraptorRinchenia? Heyuanninae Banji?ConchoraptorGanzhousaurus?GobiraptorHeyuanniaJiangxisaurusKhaanMachairasaurusNemegtomaiaOksokoShixinggia? Paraves †Imperobator†Palaeopteryx?†Pneumatoraptor†Rahonavis †Scansoriopterygidae? AmbopteryxEpidexipteryxScansoriopteryxYi †Anchiornithidae AnchiornisAurornisCaihongEosinopteryxFujianvenatorLiaoningvenator?OstromiaPedopennaSerikornisXiaotingiaYixianosaurus Eumaniraptora see below↓ Apatoraptor pennatus Nemegtomaia barsboldi Anchiornis huxleyi Eumaniraptora †Dromaeosauridae DaurlongPyroraptorShanagVariraptorZhenyuanlong Halszkaraptorinae? HalszkaraptorHulsanpesMahakalaNatovenator Unenlagiinae? AustroraptorBuitreraptorDakotaraptor?NeuquenraptorOrnithodesmus?PamparaptorPyroraptor?Rahonavis?UnenlagiaUnquillosaurus?Variraptor?Ypupiara Microraptoria? ChangyuraptorGraciliraptorHesperonychusMicroraptorSinornithosaurusTianyuraptorWulongZhongjianosaurus Eudromaeosauria BambiraptorDineobellatorTianyuraptor?VectiraptorZhenyuanlong? Saurornitholestinae AtrociraptorBambiraptor?Saurornitholestes Dromaeosaurinae AchillobatorDakotaraptor?Deinonychus?DromaeosauroidesDromaeosaurusItemirusSaurornitholestes?UtahraptorYurgovuchiaZapsalis Velociraptorinae AcheroraptorAdasaurusBoreonykus?Deinonychus?KansaignathusKuruLinheraptorLuanchuanraptor?Nuthetes?Saurornitholestes?ShriTsaaganVelociraptor †Troodontidae AlbertavenatorArchaeornithoides?GeminiraptorHesperornithoidesJianianhualongKoparion?LiaoningvenatorPapiliovenatorParonychodon?Polyodontosaurus?SinornithoidesTalosTochisaurusXixiasaurusAnchiornithidae? Jinfengopteryginae Almas?JinfengopteryxLiaoningvenator?Philovenator?Tamarro Sinovenatorinae DaliansaurusMeiSinovenatorSinusonasus Troodontinae BorogoviaByronosaurus?GobivenatorLatenivenatrixLinhevenatorPectinodonPhilovenator?SaurornithoidesStenonychosaurusTroodonUrbacodonZanabazar Avialae see below↓ Halszkaraptor escuilliei Austroraptor cabazai Microraptor gui Utahraptor ostrommaysorum Zanabazar junior Avialae Avialae †Alcmonavis†Balaur†Cretaaviculus?†Fukuipteryx†Overoraptor†Rahonavis?†Yandangornis†Anchiornithidae?†Scansoriopterygidae? †Archaeopterygidae? Alcmonavis?ArchaeopteryxWellnhoferiaAnchiornithidae? †Jeholornithiformes Dalianraptor?JeholornisJixiangornis?KompsornisNeimengornis Euavialae †Jixiangornis? Avebrevicauda †Zhongornis †Omnivoropterygidae OmnivoropteryxSapeornis Pygostylia †"Proornis"†Omnivoropterygidae? †Confuciusornithidae ChangchengornisConfuciusornisEoconfuciusornisYangavis †Jinguofortisidae ChongmingiaCratonavisJinguofortis Ornithothoraces see below↓ Archaeopteryx lithographica Confuciusornis sp. Ornithothoraces †Enantiornithes BrevirostruavisCastignovolucrisDalingheornisElsornisEoalulavisEocathayornis?FalcatakelyFeitianiusFortipesavisHouornisIlerdopteryxLiaoningornisLiaoxiornis?MicroenantiornisMirusavisParaprotopteryxPraeornis?ProtopteryxYuanjiawaornisYuornis Iberomesornithidae IberomesornisNoguerornis Pengornithidae ChiappeavisEopengornisParapengornisPengornisYuanchuavis Longipterygidae BoluochiaCamptodontornisDapingfangornisEvgenavis?LongipteryxLongirostravisRapaxavisShanweiniaoShengjingornis Euenantiornithes AbavornisAlethoalaornisAlexornisAvimaiaCatenoleimusCathayornisCratoavisCruralispenniaCuspirostrisornisDunhuangiaElbretornisElektorornisEnantiornisEoenantiornisExplorornisFlexomornisFortunguavisGrabauornisGracilornisGurilyniaHolbotiaHuoshanornisIncolornisJunornisKizylkumavisKuszholia?LargirostrornisLectavisLenesornisLongchengornisMartinavisMonoenantiornisMusivavisNanantiusOrienantiusOtogornisParvavisPiscivorenantiornisPlatanavis?PterygornisQilianiaSazavisShangyangSinornisXiangornisYatenavisYungavolucris Bohaiornithidae BeiguornisBohaiornisGretcheniaoLinyiornisLongusunguisParabohaiornisShenqiornisSulcavisZhouornis Gobipterygidae GobipteryxJibeinia?Vescornis? Avisauridae (sensu Cau & Arduini, 2008) Bauxitornis?Concornis?EnantiophoenixHalimornisMystiornis Avisauridae (sensu Chiappe, 1992) AvisaurusGettyiaIntiornisMirarceNeuquenornisSoroavisaurus Euornithes see below↓ Longipteryx chaoyangensis Cruralispennia multidonta Euornithes Euornithes †Archaeorhynchus†Bellulornis†Brevidentavis†Changmaornis†Changzuiornis†Chaoyangia†Dingavis†Eogranivora†Gansus†Gargantuavis?†Hollanda†Horezmavis†Iteravis†Jianchangornis†Jiuquanornis†Juehuaornis†Kaririavis†Khinganornis†Meemannavis†Platanavis†Vorona†Wyleyia?†Xinghaiornis†Yumenornis†Zhongjianornis †Schizoouridae MengciusornisSchizooura †Patagopterygiformes AlamitornisKuszholia?Patagopteryx †Ambiortiformes AmbiortusApsaravis?Palintropus? †Hongshanornithidae ArchaeornithuraHongshanornisLongicrusavisParahongshanornisTianyuornis †Songlingornithidae Hollanda?Piscivoravis?SonglingornisYanornis?Yixianornis? †Yanornithidae AbitusavisSimiliyanornisYanornis Ornithurae †Antarcticavis?†Apatornis†Cerebavis†Gallornis†Guildavis†Iaceornis†Kookne†Limenavis†Qinornis†Tingmiatornis †Ichthyornithes IchthyornisJanavis †Hesperornithes BaptornisBrodavisChupkaornisEnaliornisJudinornisPasquiaornisPotamornis Hesperornithidae AsiahesperornisCanadagaFumicollisHesperornisParahesperornis †Vegaviidae Australornis?MaaqwiNeogaeornis?PolarornisVegavis †Cimolopterygidae CeramornisCimolopteryxLamarqueavis? Aves / Neornithes Palaeognathae see Palaeognathae Neognathae PangalloanseraePanneoaves Patagopteryx deferrariisi Ichthyornis dispar See also: ArchaeornithesCarinataeDeinonychosauriaOdontognathaeOdontornithesSauriuraeUnenlagiidae Category vte Lists of dinosaurs by continent Non-avian dinosaurs African MadagascanAppalachia (former continent)Asian IndianEuropeanNorth AmericanSouth AmericanAustralian and Antarctic Birds AfricanAsian IndianEuropeanNorth AmericanSouth AmericanAntarcticAustralian vte Human use of birds Activities AvicultureBirdwatching Bird hideBig yearBird conservationFletchingIn sport CockfightingFalconryPigeon racingVinkensportIn science Model organismOrnithologyIn mythology and religion AugurySacred ibisSky burialIn hunting Cormorant fishingDriven grouse shootingPlume huntingWildfowling Products ChickenDownEggFeatherGuanoPoultry In the arts In art Bird-and-flower paintingFeather tightsIn heraldry AvalerionCrow/RavenEagleGallic roosterMartletTurulIn poetry The Conference of the BirdsOde to a NightingaleTo a SkylarkCrowIn prose A History of British BirdsThe Tale of Jemima Puddle-DuckThe Ugly DucklingJonathan Livingston SeagullIn theatre and ballet The BirdsSwan LakeThe FirebirdIn film The BirdsKesThe Big YearAnimated filmsChicken filmsHorror filmsIn musicIn fashion AigretteFeather boaFeather cloakIn dance CendrawasihChicken dance Species Golden eaglePenguinPigeon/DoveRaven of the Tower of London People Illustrators John James Audubon (The Birds of America)Thomas BewickJohn GouldLars JonssonJohn Gerrard KeulemansEdward LearRichard LewingtonRoger Tory PetersonHenry Constantine RichterJoseph SmitArchibald ThorburnJoseph WolfConservationists Niels KrabbePeter ScottOrganisations BirdLife InternationalRoyal Society for the Protection of BirdsWildfowl & Wetlands Trust Related Human–dinosaur coexistenceCategory:Birds and humansZoomusicology Taxon identifiers Wikidata: Q5113Wikispecies: AvesADW: AvesAFD: AvesBOLD: 51CoL: V2EoL: 695EPPO: 1AVESCFauna Europaea: 10699Fauna Europaea (new): f2fd1555-ab1f-40f7-9cbf-abebff1ffbdaFossilworks: 36616GBIF: 212iNaturalist: 3IRMNG: 1142ITIS: 174371NCBI: 8782NZOR: dcced4e7-06b1-466e-9d85-5a384501dac2Open Tree of Life: 81461Plazi: E1E0B077-76F6-D736-3B27-36617A705C73uBio: 21646WoRMS: 1836ZooBank: AAFCA22F-1980-4B62-9149-8887F1C1FDC1 Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata National SpainFranceBnF dataGermanyIsraelUnited StatesLatviaJapanCzech Republic Other NARA Categories: BirdsAnimal classesDinosaursExtant Late Cretaceous first appearancesFeathered dinosaursSantonian first appearancesTaxa named by Carl Linnaeus List of fictional birds Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools Page protected with pending changes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This list of fictional birds is subsidiary to the list of fictional animals. Ducks, penguins and birds of prey are not included here, and are listed separately at list of fictional ducks, list of fictional penguins, and list of fictional birds of prey. For non-fictional birds see List of individual birds. Struthioniformes (ostriches) Name Work Notes Big Eggo Big Eggo Madame Upanova The "Dance of the Hours" segment of Fantasia Hennie Hey Duggee Ossie The Tarax Show and Hey Hey It's Saturday Priscilla The Casagrandes Sergio's crush. Casuariformes (cassowaries and emu) Name Species Work Notes Emu Emu Emu Apterygiformes (kiwis) Name Work Notes Goodnight Kiwi Goodnight Kiwi Ivy Ivy the Kiwi? Anseriformes (waterfowl) See also List of fictional ducks and List of fictional ducks in animation Name Species Work Notes N/A Goose The Goose that Laid the Golden Eggs Akka of Kebnekaise Greylag goose The Wonderful Adventures of Nils The strict but kind-hearted matriarch of the wild geese flock. Alice and Chloe Canada geese Rio Choose Goose Goose Adventure Time Gandy Goose Goose Donald Duck cartoons Gladstone Gander Goose Donald Duck cartoons Gus Goose Goose Donald Duck cartoons Louis Trumpeter swan The Trumpet of the Swan and the 2001 film of the same name Martin (Morten) Domestic goose The Wonderful Adventures of Nils A goose originally belonging to Nils's family which flies away with a flock of wild geese and later befriends Nils. Mother Goose Goose Mother Goose and Grimm Mr. Ping Goose Kung Fu Panda Syd 'Swannie' Skilton Mute swan Mascot of the Sydney Swans Wammes Waggel Goose Tom Poes Galliformes (landfowl) Name Species Work Notes Aracuan Bird East Brazilian chachalaca Walt Disney cartoons Billina Chicken Multiple Land of Oz books Booker Chicken U.S. Acres Chanticleer Chicken Rock-a-Doodle Chica the Chicken Animatronic Chicken Five Nights at Freddy's A yellow colored animatronic chicken, in which you must fend off in order to survive the night shift at the fictional family restaurant known as Freddy Fazbear's Pizza. Chicken Chicken Cow and Chicken Chicken Boo Chicken Animaniacs A six-foot-tall chicken. Clara Cluck Chicken Walt Disney cartoons Cornelius Chicken Mascot of Kellogg's Corn Flakes Foghorn Leghorn Chicken Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies General Tsao Chicken Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves A Chinese general who forced the Panda King's daughter to marry him. Gobbler Turkey Beryl the Peril The pet of Beryl. Goldie Golden pheasant Rock-a-Doodle Gyro Gearloose Chicken Donald Duck cartoons Henny Penny Chicken Henny Penny More commonly known in the United States as Chicken Little. Leafie Chicken Leafie, A Hen into the Wild Lord Shen Indian peafowl Kung Fu Panda 2 A leucistic peacock. Marquis de Canteclaer Chicken Tom Poes Matilda Chicken Angry Birds Nugget Chicken Ace Combat Project ACES' mascot Panchito Pistoles Chicken The Three Caballeros Pavolia Reine Peafowl Hololive Production's Virtual Youtuber A peafowl princess who got lost in the human world and became a Virtual YouTuber for hololive Indonesia.[1] Peep Chicken Peep and the Big Wide World Pickles Chicken Bionic Max Roy Chicken U.S. Acres Roya Indian peafowl Shimmer and Shine The pet of Princess Samira. Roz Specklehen Faverolles Shoe (comic strip) A waitress at Roz's Roost; serves breakfast to other birds around. Sheldon Chicken U.S. Acres An unhatched chicken egg. Super Chicken Chicken The Super Chicken segment of George of the Jungle Phoenicopteriformes (flamingos) Name Work Notes Freddy T.O.T.S. Isabel, Annabelle, and Maribelle the Flamingos 64 Zoo Lane Pinkster Wild Kratts Columbiformes (pigeons and doves) Name Species Work Notes Archimedes White dove Team Fortress 2 Bernice Pigeon Sesame Street Bert’s pet pigeon who does not know how to coo and do things that he and Ernie do Dab Dodo Ice Age Dodo Dodo Alice in Wonderland and the 1951 film by the same name Gogo Dodo Dodo Tiny Toon Adventures Gladys Pigeon Muppets from Space The Birdman’s pet pigeon and sweetheart The Goodfeathers (Squit, Bobby, and Pesto) Pigeons Animaniacs Homer Pigeon Pigeon Walter Lantz cartoons Lovey-Dove Pigeon Ghost Trick: Phantom Detective A blue pigeon who likes to sit on Pigeon Man's head Sancho Pigeon The Casagrandes A deformed pigeon who is Sergio's best friend. He has only one foot. Willow Western crowned pigeon Angry Birds Stella Yankee Doodle Pigeon Pigeon Dastardly and Muttley in their Flying Machines Cuculiformes (cuckoos and roadrunners) Name Species Work Notes Little Beeper Roadrunner Tiny Toon Adventures The Road Runner Roadrunner Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies Rowdy Roadrunner Mascot of the University of Texas at San Antonio Roadrunners Sonny the Cuckoo Bird Cuckoo Mascot of Cocoa Puffs Speed Limit Greater roadrunner Wild Kratts Caprimulgiformes (nightjars, hummingbirds, and swifts) Name Species Work Notes Flit Ruby-throated hummingbird Pocahontas and Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World Violet Sabrewing Violet sabrewing DuckTales (2017) Nyctibiidae (potoos) Name Species Work Notes Melody Common potoo Angry Birds 2 Introduced in 2022 Gruiformes (cranes, rails, and allies) Name Species Work Notes Captain and Connie Crane Cranes PB&J Otter Two cranes, each of either sex, who watch over Peanut, Baby Butter and Jelly Otter in most episodes of the series. Cassandra the Crane Red-crowned crane 64 Zoo Lane Crazylegs Crane Crane The All New Pink Panther Show Master Crane Black-necked crane Kung Fu Panda Principal Secretary Crane Kiff Charadriiformes (gulls, terns, auks, and waders) Name Species Work Notes N/A Gull Gaston Lagaffe The aggressive seagull owned by Gaston Lagaffe. Garvey Gull Gull Donald Duck cartoons Gunnar the Seagull Black-headed gull 64 Zoo Lane Irving "Irv" Seagull Kelp Gull Shoe A local repairman at Irving Oil Corporation. Jonathan Livingston Seagull Lesser-black backed gull Jonathan Livingston Seagull and the 1973 film of the same name Numenia Whimbrel Numenia and the Hurricane Puffo, Mama Puffin, Puff, Finnster Atlantic puffins Wild Kratts Scuttle Gull The Little Mermaid Thomas, Sharon, Lewis and Jamie the Puffins Atlantic puffins 64 Zoo Lane Kehaar Black-headed gull Watership Down Gaviiformes (loons) Name Work Notes Becky Finding Dory Bomb Angry Birds Dave and Ping Pong Camp Lazlo Loon Shoe (comic strip) A newspaper/mail carrier and country guitar player. Shirley McLoon Tiny Toon Adventures Sphenisciformes (penguins) See List of fictional penguins Procellariiformes (albatrosses, shearwaters, petrels, and storm-petrels) Name Species Work Notes Orville Albatross The Rescuers Wilbur Albatross The Rescuers Down Under Ciconiiformes (storks) Name Species Work Notes Ava White stork T.O.T.S. Bodhi White stork T.O.T.S. J.P. White stork T.O.T.S. Larrison White stork Camp Lazlo Mr. Stork White stork Dumbo and Lambert the Sheepish Lion Ollie White stork Alfred J. Kwak Seamus the Stork White stork 64 Zoo Lane Pelecaniformes (pelicans, herons, ibises, and allies) Name Species Work Notes Anabella Heron Doki Black Heron Black heron DuckTales (2017) Blue Beaky Great blue heron Wild Kratts Captain Candace Beakman American white pelican T.O.T.S. Gular Brown pelican Wild Kratts Kulinda and Ona Hamerkops The Lion Guard Iraktaan Heron Redwall Mort Great white pelican Camp Lazlo Nigel Brown pelican Finding Nemo Ono Cattle egret The Lion Guard Pauline the Pelican Great white pelican 64 Zoo Lane Sebastian the Ibis White ibis Mascot of the Miami Hurricanes Seymore D. Fair American white pelican Mascot of the 1984 Louisiana World Exposition Warden of Marshwood Hill Heron Redwall Cathartiformes (New World vultures) See List of fictional birds of prey Accipitriformes (hawks, eagles, and Old World vultures) See List of fictional birds of prey Strigiformes (owls) See List of fictional birds of prey Trogoniformes (trogons) Name Species Work Notes Burdette Resplendent quetzal It's a Big Big World Bucerotiformes (hornbills and hoopoes) Name Species Work Notes Zazu Southern red-billed hornbill The Lion King Coraciiformes (kingfishers, rollers, and bee-eaters) Name Species Work Notes Kiki Malachite kingfisher Robinson Crusoe Olly Laughing kookaburra One of the mascots of the 2000 Summer Olympics Piciformes (woodpeckers and toucans) Name Species Work Notes Eva Keel-billed toucan Rio Hal Emerald toucanet Angry Birds Headbanger Pileated woodpecker Wild Kratts Rafael Toco toucan Rio Tallulah the Toucan and Taco the Toucan Toco toucans 64 Zoo Lane Toucan Dan Toco toucan Timon & Pumbaa Toucan Sam Toucan Mascot of Froot Loops Mr. Woodbird Red-headed woodpecker T.O.T.S. Woody Woodpecker Woodpecker Walter Lantz cartoons The character resembles a pileated woodpecker, despite being inspired by an encounter with an acorn woodpecker. Falconiformes (falcons and caracaras) See List of fictional birds of prey Suliformes/Phalacrocoraciformes (frigatebirds, cormorants, darters) Name Species Work Notes Bird Brain Blue-footed booby T.U.F.F. Puppy One of the main villains of the show. He is a genius, but he can't fly. Psittaciformes (parrots) Name Species Work Notes Abelardo Montoya Parrot Sésamo The Mexican counterpart of Big Bird. Ace Parakeet Powerbirds Andrea Parrot Kaj & Andrea A puppet from the Danish series Kaj & Andrea Arpeggio Yellow-faced parrot Sly 2: Band of Thieves The leader of the Klaww Gang who sought immortality and hoped to gain it by merging himself with the Clockwerk frame. Bia, Carla, and Tiago Spix's macaws Rio 2 Black Spot Pete Eclectus parrot Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves A pirate who stole Reme Lousteau's scuba diving gear. He later lost it to Captain LeFwee. Blu Spix's macaw Rio Full name Tyler Blu Gunderson. Captain Flint Festive amazon Treasure Island The pet of Long John Silver. Named after Captain Flint. Captain LeFwee Eclectus parrot Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves Despite being identified as a male, his coloration coincides more with the female of the species; a pirate known by many as the "smartest man on the seven seas". Carrie the Cockatoo Sulphur-crested cockatoo 64 Zoo Lane Eduardo Spix's macaw Rio 2 Felipe Scarlet macaw Rio 2 Iago Scarlet macaw Aladdin The pet of Jafar. Jewel Spix's macaw Rio José Carioca Parrot The Three Caballeros Lory Lory Alice's Adventures in Wonderland Mak Scarlet macaw Robinson Crusoe Mark Beaks Gray parrot DuckTales (2017) Mimi Spix's macaw Rio 2 Mithu Rose-ringed parakeet Meena The pet of Meena. Nigel Sulphur-crested cockatoo Rio Pirate Parrot Parrot Mascot of the Pittsburgh Pirates Poco Loco Scarlet macaw Sesame Street An anthropomorphic parrot who appeared on Sesame Street in 1974 to 1980; appears with Big Bird in some sketches Polly Cockatoo Ace Attorney Yanni Yogi's pet parrot and witness in a murder trial Polly Parakeet Powerbirds Poppy Lutino cockatiel Angry Birds Stella Polynesia Parrot Dr. Dolittle Roberto Spix's macaw Rio 2 Rio Scarlet macaw One of the Rainforest Cafe mascots Sergio Scarlet macaw The Casagrandes One of the pets of the Casagrande family. Stella Galah Angry Birds Passeriformes (perching birds) Name Species Work Notes N/A Canary King-Size Canary A canary that grows to an enormous size after a cat pours growth formula on him. Alcor Raven Little Witch Academia The pet of Professor Ursula. Big Bird Canary Sesame Street DISPUTED: Big Bird's own Wikipedia article cites conflicting statements made on episodes of Sesame Street. Big Red Northern cardinal Mascot of the Arizona Cardinals BJ Birdie and Ace Blue jay Mascot of the Toronto Blue Jays Bubbles Oriole Angry Birds Chuck Atlantic canary Angry Birds Diablo Raven Sleeping Beauty Dolf Crow Alfred J. Kwak Fredbird Northern cardinal Mascot of the St. Louis Cardinals Gale Violet-backed starling Angry Birds Stella General Ironbeak Raven Mattimeo (Redwall) Grip Raven Barnaby Rudge Based on Grip, a raven kept as a pet by Charles Dickens. The inspiration for Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven".[2] Heckle and Jeckle Yellow-billed magpies Terrytoons cartoons Henry Barn swallow Henry the Barn Swallow Hugin and Munin Ravens Norse mythology and fictional works based thereon, such as American Gods and Valhalla The two ravens of Odin. Jim, Jake, and Jay Eastern bluebirds Angry Birds Collectively known as The Blues. Kessie Bluebird The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh Korvus Skurr Raven Doomwyte (Redwall) Leader of the Doomwytes Krakulat Crow Outcast of Redwall Luca California scrub jay Angry Birds Stella Mangiz Crow Mattimeo (Redwall) Consultant of General Ironbeak Margalo Canary Stuart Little Martin Jr. Purple martin Wild Kratts Matthew Raven Sandman Molly Mockingbird Northern mockingbird Texas State Bird Pageant Moo Brown-headed cowbird Wild Kratts Mordecai Blue jay Regular Show Moses the Raven Raven Animal Farm Nico Canary Rio Nyuni Western yellow wagtail The Lion Guard The Oriole Bird Baltimore oriole Mascot of the Baltimore Orioles Pedro Red-crested cardinal Rio Phobos and Deimos Crows Sailor Moon The pet crows of Rei Hino. Pikkie Eurasian magpie Alfred J. Kwak Poe Raven Mascot of the Baltimore Ravens Quoth Raven Discworld Red Northern cardinal Angry Birds Shoe Purple martin Shoe Full name P. Martin "Shoe" Shoemaker. Sir Raven Raven The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy Skyler Eurasian Skylark Shoe An overeducated but underachieving nephew Cosmo raises. Snipes Black-billed magpie Rock-a-Doodle Spike, Mama Shrike, Thorn, Spear, and Spike Jr. Loggerhead shrikes Wild Kratts Sweet Tweet Greater honeyguide Wild Kratts Tamaa Greater racket-tailed drongo The Lion Guard Terence Northern cardinal Angry Birds Thrash Brown thrasher Mascot of the Atlanta Thrashers Tic Tic Bird Red-billed oxpecker 64 Zoo Lane Tweety Canary Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies Walt Canary The Loud House One of the pets of the Loud family. Queen Warbeak Sparrow Redwall William the Weaver Bird Southern masked weaver 64 Zoo Lane Mythical bird characters Name Type Work Notes Aya Shameimaru Crow tengu Touhou Project Fawkes Phoenix Harry Potter Takanashi Kiara Phoenix Hololive Productions A phoenix virtual YouTuber whose dream is to become the owner of a fast food chain, part of hololive English.[3] Unspecified birds The eponymous protagonists from Angry Birds Birdie the Early Bird from the McDonald's commercials Buzby, a yellow bird of unspecified species in advertisements for British Telecom in the late 1970s/early 1980s Harvey Beaks from the show of the same name. The Phillie Phanatic, the mascot of the Philadelphia Phillies Pino, the Dutch counterpart of Big Bird in Sesamstraat Wattoo Wattoo, an oval-shaped black and white bird in Wattoo Wattoo Super Bird Woodstock, a bird of unknown species in the Charles M. Schulz's Peanuts comic strip. Fictional bird species Chocobo, a bird in the Final Fantasy series Jayhawk, part "jay" and part "hawk" this bird is the mascot of the Kansas Jayhawks sports teams and has roots in Kansas lore The Jubjub Bird from Lewis Carroll's poem "Jabberwocky" Breegulls, of which Kazooie is one, from the Banjo-Kazooie series Loftwings, flying mountable birds based on shoebills featured in The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword Mockingjay, central bird that is part of the Hunger Games trilogy Porgs, a species of penguin or puffin-like birds that live on Ach-To in Star Wars: The Last Jedi The Roly-Poly Bird from Roald Dahl's children books The Enormous Crocodile and The Twits The Snip Snip Bird in 64 Zoo Lane Tinga Tinga Birds from Tinga Tinga Tales Twitter Bird, the mascot of Twitter Weatherbird, the mascot of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch; identified as a dicky-bird, a generic term for a small bird. Humans transformed into birds The six brothers turned into birds in German fairytale The Six Swans The eleven siblings cursed by their queenly stepmother in The Wild Swans Princess Odette, a human with a curse that turns her into a swan during the day in The Swan Princess The Swan Maiden, a magical bird who turns into a beautiful woman in several folktales Willy, a boy-turned-sparrow and main character in Willy the Sparrow See also List of avian humanoids List of fictional birds of prey List of fictional dinosaurs List of fictional ducks List of fictional penguins List of legendary creatures by type § Birds References "Pavolia Reine | TALENT | hololive official website". hololive.hololivepro.com. Retrieved 2023-11-15. Hollington, Michael (30 October 2020). "Dickens, Grip and the Corvid Family". Caliban (64): 81–99. doi:10.4000/caliban.8761. "Takanashi Kiara | TALENT | hololive official website". hololive.hololivepro.com. Retrieved 2023-11-15. vte Lists of fictional life forms Plants Plants Animals ArthropodsFishParasitesWorms Amphibians Frogs and toads animation Reptiles CrocodiliansDinosaursSnakesTurtles Birds Birds of preyDucks animationPenguins Mammals Canines AnimationComicsLiteratureDogs prose and poetrycomicslive-action filmlive-action televisionanimationanimated filmanimated televisionvideo gamesFoxesWolves Felines AnimationComicsFilmLiteratureTelevisionBig cats animation Rodents AnimationComicsLiteratureVideo Games Non-human primates AnimationComicsFilmLiteratureTelevisionVideo games Ungulates AnimationHorsesLiteraturePachydermsPigs Miscellaneous BearsMarsupialsMusteloids animationBadgersRaccoonsPinnipedsRabbits and haresRhinogradentia Humanoids General ComicsFilmLiteratureTelevisionVideo games Specific AvianPiscine and AmphibianReptilian Other Alien species HumanoidsParasitesSymbionts Legendary By typeDragons popular culturefilm and televisiongamesliteraturemythology and folkloreEquines UnicornsWinged horsesWinged unicornsGhostsGiantsHybridsMermaidsVampires by regionDhampirsWerewolves Theological Fictional angelsFictional demonsFictional deities Categories: Fictional birdsLists of fictional birdsLists of birds

  • Condition: Gebraucht
  • Condition: In Good Condition for its age
  • Brand: Sparrow
  • Manufacturer: Sparrow
  • Material: Metal
  • Item Type: Ornament/ Figurine
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: United Kingdom
  • Mounted/ Unmounted: Unmounted

PicClick Insights - Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK PicClick Exklusiv

  • Popularität - 5 Beobachter, 0.2 neue Beobachter pro Tag, 30 days for sale on eBay. Super hohe beobachtend. 0 verkauft, 1 verfügbar.
  • Popularität - Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK

    5 Beobachter, 0.2 neue Beobachter pro Tag, 30 days for sale on eBay. Super hohe beobachtend. 0 verkauft, 1 verfügbar.

  • Bestpreis -
  • Preis - Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK

  • Verkäufer - 4.265+ artikel verkauft. 0.3% negativ bewertungen. Großer Verkäufer mit sehr gutem positivem Rückgespräch und über 50 Bewertungen.
  • Verkäufer - Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK

    4.265+ artikel verkauft. 0.3% negativ bewertungen. Großer Verkäufer mit sehr gutem positivem Rückgespräch und über 50 Bewertungen.

    Aktuelle Bewertungen
  • 2 BeobachterSilber Spatz Vogel Form Vorne Türklopfer Messing Heim Dekor Möbliert Glocke VR7

    EUR 119,20 Sofort-Kaufen oder Preisvorschlag

  • Vogel Messingornament Zierornament Messing Blindprägen Ornament Buchbinder Spatz

    EUR 33,33 Sofort-Kaufen

  • Spatz Vogel Form Vorne Türklopfer Massives Messing Vintage Stil Heim Dekor CJ 9

    EUR 121,89 Sofort-Kaufen oder Preisvorschlag

  • 2 BeobachterAntik Stil Messing Specht Türklopfer Vogel Spatz Form Tür Dekorativ Glocke

    EUR 120,06 Sofort-Kaufen oder Preisvorschlag

  • 7 Beobachter Deko Figuren Set Spatzen Vögel Messing Brüniert Vogel Figur Spatz Singvogel NEU

    EUR 45,00 Sofort-Kaufen

  • 1 beobachterMessing Vogel Türklopfer Specht Spatz Design Türklingel Ring Tür Dekor RU73

    EUR 116,18 Sofort-Kaufen oder Preisvorschlag

  • 2 BeobachterSpecht Türklingel Messing Natur Thema Vogel Türklopfer Für Heim Und Hotel AJ076

    EUR 121,44 Sofort-Kaufen oder Preisvorschlag

  • Bezaubernde Goldener Kleine Vogel Baumel Spatz Feed Blau Beere Obst Ohrringe

    EUR 19,68 Sofort-Kaufen oder Preisvorschlag

Messing Spatz Vintage Vogel Antik Viktorianisch Ornament Alte Miniaturen Figur UK • EUR 71,53 (2024)
Top Articles
Latest Posts
Recommended Articles
Article information

Author: Twana Towne Ret

Last Updated:

Views: 5913

Rating: 4.3 / 5 (64 voted)

Reviews: 87% of readers found this page helpful

Author information

Name: Twana Towne Ret

Birthday: 1994-03-19

Address: Apt. 990 97439 Corwin Motorway, Port Eliseoburgh, NM 99144-2618

Phone: +5958753152963

Job: National Specialist

Hobby: Kayaking, Photography, Skydiving, Embroidery, Leather crafting, Orienteering, Cooking

Introduction: My name is Twana Towne Ret, I am a famous, talented, joyous, perfect, powerful, inquisitive, lovely person who loves writing and wants to share my knowledge and understanding with you.